The Year S Work In English Studies Volume XVI 1935

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This/Volume is for
REFERENCE USE ONLY

KANSAS CITY, MO. PUBLIC LIBRARY

THE YEAR'S WORK IN
ENGLISH STUDIES

VOLUME XVI

1935

Edited for

Cfjeengitsf) association

BY

FREDERICK S. BOAS

AND

MARY S, SERJEANTSON

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

LOKDON : HUMPHREY MILFORD

1937

OXIORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
AMEN HOUSE, B.C. 4

London Edinburgh Glasgow New York
Toronto Melbourne Capetown Bombay

Calcutta Madras
HUMPHREY MII^ORD
PUBLISHES, TO THE UNIVERSITY

FEINTED IN GEEA.T BEITAIN

Ref,

PREFACE

IN this Volume of T%e Year's Work there are a few changes to
which the Editors wish to call attention. Since Volume VI,
dealing with the publications of 1925, Miss Dorothy Everett's
chapter on Middle English has been a conspicuous feature of
this annual Survey. With the constant expansion of medieval
studies, Miss Everett has now found it desirable to limit her
field in The Tear's Work. Two chapters have therefore been
allocated to Middle English publications. Mss Everett will
fortunately continue to deal with Chaucer, Gower, and Lydgate,
while the linguistic Editor will be responsible for the rest of the
work in Middle English, under the heading, 'Before and after
Chaucer 5 .

In these circumstances the Editors are glad to state that the
chapter on * Philology: General Works' has been undertaken
by Mr. C. L. Wrenn, of Queen's College, Oxford, University
Lecturer in English Language. The chapter on C 01d English 3
is this year contributed by Mrs. Martin Clarke.

The present Volume contains notices of 338 books and 718
articles.

F. S. B.

M. S. S.

ABBREVIATIONS

Archiv = Archiv fur das Stadium der neueren Sprachen.

C.H.E.L. = Cambridge History of English Literature.

C.U.P. = Cambridge University Press.

E.E.T.S. = Early English Text Society.

E JL.H. = A Journal of English Literary History (U.S.A.)-

Eng. Stud. = Englische Studien.

Germ.-rom. Monat. = Germanisch-romanische Monatsschrift.

J.E.G.P. = Journal of English and Germanic Philology.

L.Mer. = London Mercury.

Med. JEw. = Medium ^Evnm.

M.LJNT. = Modern Language N"otes.

M.L.R. = Modern Language Review.

Mod. Phil. = Modern Philology.

N. and Q. = Notes and Queries.

OJJ.P. = Oxford University Press.

P.M.L.A. = Publications of the Modern Language Association

of America.

P.Q. = Philological Quarterly.

Rev. ang.-amer. = Revue anglo-americaine.
Rev. de Litt. Comp. = Revue de la Literature Compar6e.
R.E.S. = Review of English Studies.
R.S.L. = Royal Society of Literature.
S.A.B. = Shakespeare Association Bulletin (U.S. A.).
S. in Ph. = Studies in Philology.
T.L.S* = Times Literary Supplement.

Y.W. = The Year's Work.

CONTENTS

I. LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM:

GENERAL WORKS 7

By B. IFOR EVANS, M.A., Professor of English Lan-
guage and Literature in the University of London
(Queen Mary College).

II. PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS . . .30

By C. L. WRESTN, M.A., University Lecturer in Eng-
lish Language in the University of Oxford.

III. OLD ENGLISH 66

By DAISY E. MARTIN CLARKE, M.A., Fellow and
Tutor of St. Hugh's College, Oxford.

IV. MIDDLE ENGLISH. I. CHAUCER, GOWER, AND

LYDGATE 91

By DOROTHY EVERETT, M.A,, Fellow and Tutor
of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford.

V. MIDDLE ENGLISH. II. BEFORE AND AFTER

CHAUCER 120

By MARY S. SERJEANTSON, M.A., D.PML, Reader
in English Language in the University of London
(Westfield College)

VI. THE RENAISSANCE 160

By FREDERICK S. BOAS, LLJX, D.Lit., F.R.SJL

VII. SHAKESPEARE 175

By ALLARDYCE NICOLL, M.A., Professor of Drama-
tic History and Criticism, and Chairman of the
Department of Drama in Yale University, U.S.A.

VIII. ELIZABETHAN DRAMA . . . .199

By FREDERICK S. BOAS.

IX. THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD: POETRY AND

PROSE 225

(1) The, Later Tudor Period. By A. K. MC!LWRAITH,

M.A., D.PhiL, Lecturer in English Literature

in the University of Liverpool . . . 225

(2) The Earlier Stuart Age and the Commonwealth.

By L. C. MARTIN, B.Litt., M.A., Professor of
English Literature in the University of Liverpool 248

6 CONTENTS

X. THE BESTOBATION . . . . .265

By E. E. BTJDD, M.A., Ph.D., Lecturer on English
Literature, Queen Mary College (University of
London).

XL THE EIGHTEENTH CENTUBY . . .282

By EDITH J. MOKLEY, M.A., P.B.S.L., Professor
of English Language in the University of Beading.

XII. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AETEB.

I. 1800-1860 318

By H. V. BOUTS, D.Litt., Beader in English
Language and Literature in the University of
London (King's College and the School of Eco-
nomics).

(1) The Romantic Revival . . . .318

(2) The Victorian Era . . . . .327

XIII. THE NINETEENTH CENTUBY AND AFTEB. II. 333

By H. V. BOTJTH.

XIV. BIBLIOGBAPHICA 348

BY HARBY SELLEBS, M.A., of the British Museum.

INDEX 363

By GWENDOLEN MUBPHY, M.A.

LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM:

GENERAL WORKS

By B. IFOB EVANS

THE works that fall within this chapter are of such a varied
nature that it is necessary to divide them somewhat arbitrarily
into certain categories. The most convenient divisions have
been found to be (i) general criticism and literary history,
(ii) the criticism of poetry with works on metric, (iii) the history
and criticism of drama, (iv) the history and criticism of prose
works, (v) collected papers, (vi) anthologies, (vii) miscellaneous
works.

It has been frequently noted in this chapter that in recent
years there have been few discussions of principles in literary
criticism as compared with the many studies of single authors
or aspects. This year, while there is no outstanding contribution
to record in this section, a number of works have appeared of a
general nature and all in a degree serviceable. C. Alexander has
attempted a survey 1 of the literature contributed by Roman
Catholic authors in England from 1845. His study begins,
naturally, with the work of Newman, and its first section
includes Aubrey de Vere, Stephen Hawker, Coventry Patmore,
and Gerard Mauley Hopkins. He sees Catholic literature in
this period as a "protest against the course being followed by
European society '. In the eighteen-nineties with Alice Meynell,
Lionel Johnson, Erancis Thompson, and others he discovers a
group of Catholic writers who obtained a wider recognition from
their contemporaries: c they were even accorded a measure of
leadership by those who were rapidly losing their faith in
nineteenth-century civilization. ' Finally he surveys the work
of the numerous contemporary writers who have given adher-
ence to the Catholic faith. Here he finds 'the Catholic Church
firmly established in the modern consciousness ', and upheld by

1 The Catholic Literary Revival, by Calvert Alexander. Coldwell.
pp. xv+399. Us.

8 LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM

many, who are not Catholics themselves, as the one alternative
to Communism. Such a study fills a gap in our literary history.
Unfortunately the popular style of the present volume limits its
usefulness to the student, and the absence of any clearly defined
literary standards in criticism tends to obliterate all distinctions
between the great and the mediocre. Alexander seems satisfied
with a writer once he has discovered a concurrence in belief,
and at times he is not free from the special pleading which one
associates with the coterie critic. The volume is furnished with
reading lists, though these might well have been more numerous
and complete.

Norman Hurst has attempted to make a contribution 2 to
literary criticism by the discovery of a new terminology ' wider
and deeper than the classifications commonly used', and yet
not 'too rigid or intellectual', which will bring into some order
within the mind the 'infinitely varied expressions' of literature.
He has four primary terms in his criticism. The first he de-
scribes as the ' outer ', or the recognition of an external world and
a belief that it can be reproduced, an impulsion which leads
often towards realism. In opposition to this first awareness he
discovers the 'inner 3 or the recognition of a world apart from
an external world, within the individual consciousness and not
controlled by concepts of space and time. Further, he employs
the terms 'energy 5 and 'balance 3 , neither of them capable of
brief definition though corresponding at times to the concep-
tions usually held of 'romanticism' and 'classicism'. Often he
discovers the four elements in combination in literature, and
some of his most mature writing is devoted to the effects so
produced. It is as difficult in literature, as in any other activity
of the human mind possessive of a long tradition, to formulate
a new creed or to gain acceptance for new formularies. We
cannot easily forget our old terms, however inadequate they
may be proved to be. The value of Hurst's volume lies not so
much in the invention of a new critical vocabulary, as in the
freshness of outlook, which the reconsideration of critical terms
has brought into his work. His study is sensitive and suggestive,

2 Four Elements in Literature, by Norman Hurst. Longmans, Green,
pp. xix-f 192, Qs.

GENERAL WORKS 9

and, though much of it was first written as a thesis, the mark of
that academic Cain has been almost entirely obliterated.

Oliver Elton has devoted the Ludwig Mond lecture to The
Natwe of Literary Criticism? As ever, he brings to his theme
an obvious delight in literature, with a judicial attitude to its
controversies. 'Criticism', he maintains, c is neither historical
study, nor scholarship, nor poetic, nor a branch of psychology,
although it uses all these instruments and cannot get far
without them/ Nor are the critics of one type, and we should
be content to see them employed in their varied disciplines.
Of particular interest are his paragraphs on the critic's power
to preserve or restore literary reputations and on the actor's part
as a critic of drama.

Carl van Doren, in a short monograph, 4 attempts to show how
American literature differs from others. He comments that
American literature, unlike that of Europe, is younger than
the art of printing. It begins not with legends and verse but with
prose, with reports, and with news: 'American literature has
never quite ceased being news from the New World to the Old. '
His main theme is the survey of the gradual recognition gained
by American writers in Europe, and then, later, their develop-
ment of an independence of European standards. He gives
succinct accounts of the outstanding figures to confirm hi3
general argument. His study begins with Jonathan Edwards
and the literature of the colonial age, and develops into a
consideration of the cosmopolitan' American writers, Washing-
ton Irving, Emerson, Melville, and Poe, who were indebted to
Europe and accepted by Europe. This was the classical age
of American literature, and it remains the period which has
attracted the widest attention from foreigners. Even Franklin,
Hawthorne, and Thoreau, who were in many ways more in-
timately American, were closely in contact with European
standards. Van Doren then portrays, through Walt Whitman

3 The Nature of Literary Criticism, by Oliver Elton. Manchester
Univ. Press, pp. 26, Is. 6d.

4 What is American Literature? by Carl van Doren. Routledge.
pp. viii+141. 3s. 6d.

10 LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM

and Emily Dickinson, strangely contrasting personalities, the
development of distinguishable American values in literature ;
meanwhile 'Mark Twain ', finding that America lacked a folk-
lore, proceeded to create one. The final phase in his study is the
survey of a modern American literature, independent, some-
times aggressive, even isolationist and frequently distrustful
of Europe. In the early stages of this development that great
book, The Education of Henry Adams, played an important
part. Its more recent manifestations, familiar to most readers,
are outlined here with brevity but in due perspective.

Philip Henderson has written a short account of English
literature. 5 It cannot be properly described as a popular account,
though it belongs to a popular series. Still less can it figure as
an academic monograph, for in detail it is on occasion either
misleading or inaccurate. Yet it has a distinctive quality, for it
is the clearest statement in English of the Marxist interpreta-
tion of literature. For Henderson the economic interpretation
of literature and a faith in the proletarian state are matters of
primary concern. The whole volume is written with vigour and
with an aggressive quality, which, however, seldom becomes
truculent. Even the student who anathemizes the political
doctrines on which this study is based may discover something
of value from the freshness of outlook which Henderson's
criticism frequently attains.

A volume under the editorship of Geoffrey Grigson 6 surveys
the arts from the standpoint of some of the youngest writers
and critics. In 'Psychology and Art', W. H. Auden deals
somewhat inconclusively with, the relations of Freudian psycho-
logy to art. Louis MacNeice writing on "Poetry ' is distressingly
aggressive towards the more traditional schools, but construc-
tive in his analysis of recent experiments. Humphrey Jennings
is almost wholly destructive on the 'Theatre', nor does Arthur
Calder-Marshall present any more hopeful prospect in his essay
on 'Fiction To-day'. Some of the best studies in the volume

5 Literature, "by Philip Henderson. John Lane. pp.-x+180. 3s. Qd.

6 The Arts To-day, ed. by Geoffrey Grigson. John Lane. pp. xiv+ 301.
8*. 6dL

GENERAL WORKS 11

are on themes only indirectly related to literary studies ; Edward
Crankshaw on 'Music ', John Grierson on 'The Cinema 5 , and
John Summerson on 'Architecture'.

In a compact monograph 7 H. V. Routh attempts to estimate
the degree to which literature in the nineteenth century and
at the present time has been able to interpret man's changing
political and economic status. Of necessity, such a survey has
to exclude certain aspects of literature, though in the nineteenth
century most of the major figures were involved in some con-
sideration of social problems. Routh recognizes that imagina-
tive literature has a distinct function: ' poems, essays, novels,
and plays liberate the wilful, personal, private part of our
natures, which civilization threatens to efface. 5 His study
begins with the early nineteenth century and with the increas-
ing disillusionment expressed by creative writers on the possi-
bilities of the industrial age. The teachings of Ruskin and
Arnold are examined in some detail, while later and even con-
temporary figures are included in the survey.

The year has been productive of a number of instruments de
travail. Outstanding is the publication by the Warburg Insti-
tute of a German bibliography 8 of the survival of the Classics.
The volume is published with two title-pages. The German
version has one word, 'kulturwissenschaftliche', which is not
rendered into English. The term was employed by Professor
Warburg to describe his ideal of a 'comprehensive science of
civilization ' for which the historians of science were to work
in conjunction with the students of literature, philosophy, art,
and religion. In the introduction to this volume the term is
considered historically in its relation to German studies and
controversies. In plan, the bibliography covers all the major
forms of human activity, folk-lore, religion, philosophy, law,
literature, the plastic and pictorial arts, speech, caligraphy,
and book-production. It incorporates the contact of the classics
with Europe and with the Orient in each successive period. Each

7 Money, Morals and Manners as Eevealed in Modern literature, by
H. V. Routh. Ivor Nicholson and Watson, pp. 256. 4s. 6d.

8 KulturwissewcJiaftliche Bibliogra/phie zum Nachleben der Antike,
[1931], 1934, ed. by the Waxburg Institute. CasseU. pp.xxii+333. 21*.

12 LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM

item listed is accompanied with a brief bibliographical descrip-
tion, a summary of contents, and a critical review. The volume
is listed among the publications of the Warburg Institute for
1931, and its late appearance (1934) was not 'due merely to
unfavourable times 3 but 'to the necessity of finding a tenable
principle of arrangement and collaboration which, without in-
fringing upon the rights of individual themes and reviewers,
would bring out clearly the relation of each part to the whole**
The present volume is to be supplemented later by subsequent
volumes and by a catalogue of the Warburg Institute. The
editors, in their introduction, are generous to the results
of English work in the same field, but nothing previously
produced can compete with the plan envisioned, and in part
fulfilled, by the co-operate effort of the present volume.

One of Sir Walter Raleigh's dreams used to be of a complete
series of Annals of English literature, with the full publications
listed under each year. Those endless volumes must remain as
a Platonic idea of an index of English literature, but meanwhile
the Oxford Press issues the earthly counterpart of the image. 9
J. C. Ghosh has contrived to produce in one volume for the
years from 1547 to 1925 a selected list of publications entered
chronologically under the successive years. The reader is thus
able to see at a glance the main literary output of any given
year, along with a record from earlier and later years of the
literary environment of the period. Further, a well contrived
and detailed index allows one to trace out the complete
work of any given author and to view it in relationship to
the performances of his contemporaries. The format is well
contrived for clarity, and the selection has been excellently
managed. That the work serves a useful purpose to certain
students can be seen from its almost immediate republication.

Frederic Ewen has produced a detailed and comprehensive
study 10 of the reputation of Schiller in England. He adopts as
a starting-point the year 1788 when Henry Mackenzie intro-
duced Schiller to English readers. Throughout the Romantic

8 Annals of English Literature. O.U.P. pp. vi-f-340. 8$. 6d.
10 The Prestige of Schiller in England, 1738-1859, by Frederic Ewen.
Columbia Univ. and O.U. Presses, pp. xiii-f 287. 15s.

GENERAL WORKS 13

period he finds that attention attached mainly to Schiller's
early works: 'he was pre-eminently the author of The Bobbers,
Cabal and Love, and The Ghost-Seer.' A change came in 1813
after the publication of Madame de Stael's Germany, and her
insistence that Schiller was 'the minister of high idealism, a
philosopher, a thinker of amplitude, and what is perhaps more
important, an impeccable character'. This conception Ewen
finds expressed for English readers in Carlyle's Life of Schiller.
Bulwer's The Poems and Ballads of Schiller attempts even to
elevate this conception of character to one approaching ' saint-
hood'. Finally, in the middle of the century, a more tutored
and intelligent criticism developed and the competing claims
of Goethe gained more adequate attention. In 1855, with the
appearance of G. H. Lewes's Life of Goethe, Schiller comes to
take his 'rightful place immediately below Goethe'. Ewen's
monograph, of which this is only the most general outline, is
worked out in great detail and is equipped with an excellent
bibliography.

E. J. Simmons has performed a notable service in a survey 11
of the contacts of English literature and culture with Russia
from 1553 to 1840. From the middle of the sixteenth century,
when Ivan the Terrible first developed contacts with England,
to the reign of Catharine II, the main intercourse between
England and Russia was commercial. Still commerce led to
cultural and social interchanges, more numerous than is some-
times imagined. Simmons is able to record among many other
instances that George Turberville was the secretary of a mission
to Russia and recorded a land 'where the bedding is not good
and the bolsters are but bad'. Further, the plays of the English
players on the continent found their way ultimately and with
many modifications into Russia: Simmons notes for 1674 the
production of Temir Alcsakovo, a Play or 'Small Comedy 3 on
Bajazet and Tamberlane, which he regards as derived from
Marlowe through 'some wrenched German version'. From the
eighteenth century the material allows Simmons to concentrate
more directly on literary influences,, and the names of Milton,

11 English Literature and Culture in Russia (1553-1840), by E. J.
Simmons. Harvard Univ. and 0. II. Presses, pp. viii+357. 15s.

14 LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM

Richardson, Fielding, and Ann Radcliffe appear. Russia took
kindly, too, to English sentimentalism, and Thomson, Young,
Ossian, and Sterne had their vogue. The reputation of the
Romantics in Russia has already been the subject of separate
studies, but Simmons deals in detail with the profound influence
of Scott and Byron. He has also a separate study of Shake-
speare's contact with the Russian stage and with Russian
literature. This admirable volume has an apparatus of notes,
and detailed bibliographies which include the numerous con-
tributions of Russian students to the subject.

Among the works on the criticism of poetry the most ambi-
tious is Maud Bodkin's volume 12 'addressed especially to those
students of psychology and of imaginative literature who believe
that something may be gained by bringing these studies into
closer relation'. She bases her study on the hypothesis formu-
lated by Jung that the emotional significance found in certain
poems beyond any meaning definitely conveyed is to be attri-
buted to the presence 'beneath the conscious response' of
unconscious forces which he terms 'primordial images or arche-
types 5 . Her analysis opens with an examination of a 'rebirth
archetype' in the central stanzas of The Ancient Mariner. She
suggests that J. L. Lowes's methods of tracing the literary asso-
ciations of the imagery are insufficient. There lies also in the
poem a 'pattern', commonly found in literature, and similar to
that in the story of Jonah, the theme of the 'night journey'
or 'rebirth'. This recurrent 'pattern' has its counterpart in
the opposite, described by Freud as 'death and life instincts'.
Miss Bodkin also analyses the 'Paradise-Hades' archetype and
the images of 'woman', 'the devil', e the hero', and 'God', with
reference mainly to the poetry of Dante, Shakespeare, Milton,
Coleridge, and Shelley, and with frequent illustrations from
Greek literature. Incidentally she urges that the emotional
response of poetry can only be gained through 'free association
and introspection'.

The main difficulty encountered by the reader of this volume
is to decide whether psychology is being used to serve literature

12 Archetypal Patterns in Poetry, by Maud Bodkin. O.U.P. pp. xiv+
340. 12*. 6rf.

GENERAL WORKS 15

or literature employed as data for psychological investigations.
The author suggests as the motive for her study the discovery
of the 'deeper processes involved in the response to poetry'.
But it cannot be urged too often that the psychological analysis
of those responses may not necessarily increase our enjoyment
of literature, nor will it necessarily increase our understanding.
Literary criticism has its own method, its own vocabulary, and
its own ends. Miss Bodkin, suggestive though her monograph
often is, seems in danger of introducing methods and processes
alien to literature. Her aim seems dominated often by her
psychological rather than her literary interests. It may be well
to bring literature and psychology together, but the result
would be disastrous if, as a consequence, literature were merged
into psychology.

Only one volume on metric has been received, a study of
rhythm by Sir Stanley Leathes. 13 This brief study of the most
difficult and intangible element in prosody is obviously the
outcome of a generous reading in a number of literatures. The
presentation of the argument lacks at times the necessary
cohesion, and conclusions are occasionally reached rather by
divination than by logical approach. Leathes commences his
study with a note on Greek and Latin measures. Greek metre
depends on number and quantity (duration in time), while the
Romans adapted the Greek system in place of their native
versification, which was probably stressed. English verse be-
ginning as a stressed system was modified by Chaucer's know-
ledge of the 'lightly stressed' nature of French verse. Those
experiments gained their ultimate expression in Shakespeare.
Using the ten syllable line as a norm he incorporated elements
from the English, the French, and the classical systems. He
used quantity, and stress, and a lightness of stress to gain
rhythm: these elements he disposed so that they 'hovered
around a norm, but were seldom identical with that norm*.
The method that Shakespeare evolved Milton adapted for his
own purposes. Eighteenth-century verse Leathes sees as a
return to the predominance of stress: 'roughly, from 1670 to

18 RJvythm in English Poetry, by Sir Stanley Leathes. Heinemann
pp. vi+154. 6s.

16 LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM

1820, not only in narrative, dramatic, contemplative, satiric,
and descriptive poetry, but also in the lyrical verse, of our
countrymen, regular stresses were predominant in metre. The
stresses in this period did not become so rigid and heavy as
those in German, but the framework for rhythm became less
elastic.' The revolt from these restrictions Leath.es finds in
Keats's Endymion and in the work of the later romantics.

While much in this study is suggestive, one feels that the
ultimate problem of rhythm still remains unexplored. It is
strange, too, to find a volume on metric which leaves the Testa-
ment of Beauty to be 6 judged by future generations ' . The metrist
should help us to understand the work of our contemporaries.
Leathes ends his study with Swinburne and leaves Hopkins,
who is vital to his whole argument, unexamined. Nor can one
easily acquiesce in his judgements on earlier verse. The heroic
couplet has far more rhythmical variety than his conclusions
suggest, while the period 1670-1820, which he dismisses so
briefly, is full of prosodic adventure and of experiment.

A number of works on dramatic history and criticism have
been received. The most notable is Enid Welsford's study of
The FooL u Her study opens with a survey of the professional
buffoon in western Europe: 'the buffoon is neither the uncon-
scious fool, nor the conscious artist who portrays him ; he is
the conscious fool who shows himself up, chiefly for gain, but
occasionally at least for the mere love of folly. ' He is ' morally
subnormal but not mentally deranged 5 : his ' acknowledged
defects are socially acceptable as a source of entertainment'.
Along with the historical buffoons she considers the mythical
figures created out of the popular imagination, the Arabian
Si-Djoha s who in Sicily became Giufa; Marcolf, c the ungainly
peasant who outwitted Solomon'; Scogin, who in England
inherited Marcolf 's jokes; Till Eulenspiegel and others. She
discovers a development in the court fool who causes amuse-
ment not 'merely by absurd gluttony, merry gossip, or knavish
tricks, but by mental deficiencies or physical deformities'. The
retention of fools and of madmen and dwarfs in noble houses
seems obscure, though Miss Welsford carries her examination

14 The Fool, by Enid Welsford. Faber and Faber. pp. xv+374. 21*.

GENERAL WORKS 17

back as far as the Pharaohs, and down to a consideration of the
Hunferth episode in Beowulf and to the Irish 'fill 3 . Her view is
that grotesque figures were originally kept for magical or religious
purposes, but that very soon, perhaps from the first, they evoked
curiosity and amusement. Evidence is more ample for her
examination of the medieval court-fool, "whom she regards as
possibly 'the result of a fusion between the Celtic and Roman
fool 3 . The origin of a genuine interest in the personality of the
court-fool enters with the Renaissance, and she examines in
detail the conceptions prevalent in England. The decline of the
court-fool is to be discovered in the eighteenth century, 'except
in the more backward countries of Europe such as Russia'.

In a later section of her monograph Miss Welsford considers
the imaginative presentation of the court-fool, and she examines
the activities of the festival ring-leader, the Lord of Misrule,
and surveys the 'Feast of Fools', the Societes Joyeuses, the
'Mere-Folle', the 'Infanterie Dijoimaise', the 'Cornardo 5 of
Rouen and fivreux, the Parisian 'Enfants-sans-souci J , and
other fool societies. These form a link with her study of the
presentation of the court-fool in literature, particularly in the
'Sottie, a type of comedy in which the fool provided both
the dramatis personae and the theme 5 . She traces the influence
of the Sottie on Sir David Lindsay's Satire of the Three Estates.
She examines the German contribution, including Sebastian
Brant's Narrenschiff, and shows how the fool-literature pro-
vided Erasmus in The Praise of Folly with a literary convention.
A separate study explores the place of the fool in Elizabethan
drama, though Miss Welsford finds that apart from Shakespeare
this is not so notable as might be expected. The final section
is an admirable account of the stage clown. The volume is
well equipped with notes and bibliographies. Of its value to the
student of drama no emphasis need be made here. The pre-
sentation is scholarly with the added virtues of wit and a grace
in style, and the theme as presented is throughout absorbing.

Camillo Pellizzi's II teatro inglese has now been translated 15
by Rowan Williams. The volume opens with a general discus-

15 English Drama, by Camillo Pellizzi: trans, by Rowan Williams.
Macmillaii. pp, ix+306. 7s. 6d.

2762.16 B

18 LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM

sion of the English desire for compromise: 'there genius reveals
itself more in the empiric creation of realities and new situations
than in the attainment of universal principles. ' This prelimin-
ary matter is interesting though it is addressed primarily to
an Italian audience. The more detailed study begins with the
drama of the middle of the nineteenth century. Even here
Pellizzi maintains an attitude independent of English traditions
in criticism. His estimate of Robertson, for instance, is far
lower than that of the English historians of the drama. The
most significant movement he discovers in the * social remorse'
of the middle classes, which, beginning with Ibsen, found its
main expression in G. B. Shaw, 'that type of middle class anti-
middle, class 3 to whom the greater part of the spiritual and also
political life of Western civilization in the last century is due.
Pellizzi also studies the dramatic work of St. John Hankin,
Granville Barker, Elizabeth Baker, John Galsworthy, Harold
Chapin, Harold Brighouse, and of a number of minor writers.
Further, he analyses the revival of fantasy in the play$ of Barrie,
Masefield, Yeats, Flecker, and Dunsany, and surveys the anec-
dotal and historical drama of Laurence Housman and John
Drinkwater, He has incorporated into his work an account
of the Irish theatre from the early work of Lady Gregory to
the 'new realism 3 of Sean O'Casey, and he has a brief but dis-
criminating summary of the activities of the American theatre.
His concluding chapter considers contemporary drama down to
1932, the date when the volume was completed in its Italian
version.

F. B. Millett and G. E. Bentley have produced a volume 16
intended as an introduction to the study of drama. Their aim
is not to give a history of drama, but to explore the contrasting
expressions of drama in different periods and to review these
in relationship to the nature of the audiences and to the possi-
bilities of dramatic technique. Thus in their first section tragedy
and comedy are described from their appearance in the Greek
theatre down to their production in modern times. A brief
section is appended on melodrama and farce. The treatment

16 The Art of the Drama, by F. B. Millett and G. E. Bentley. New
York : Appleton Century Co. pp. viii+253. 8s. 6e#.

GENERAL WORKS 19

has of necessity to be of a summary character throughout.
This necessitates that many of the statements demand qualifica-
tion. Equally it is difficult to see who can read such a com-
pressed narration with intelligent understanding except those
whose previous knowledge of the subject would make the
perusal of the present volume an act of supererogation. This
applies even more keenly to the second section, where the authors
consider 'Dramatic Modes and Values', and review drama
under such headings as 'classicism', 'romanticism', and 'senti-
mentalism 3 . Possibly the most useful section is on 'Dramatic
Technique' , where the authors consider the more practical
aspects of dramatic presentation, a subject which has always
gained more attention in America than in England. The work
has no bibliography or reading lists, and frequently there are
no references to the authorities quoted in the text. These
omissions impair the usefulness of a volume whose right use
by the student demands further and more detailed reading,
and the addition of such an apparatus in a later edition would
add to the value of the work.

Notable among the volumes on prose are two works on the
history of journalism. The Times celebrates its hundred and
fiftieth anniversary with an 'autobiography', 17 if so intimate a
term can be applied to the composite work 'of a number of
past and present members of the staff of The Times ... in
general a body of men whose tradition and training have
disposed them to anonymity'. The aim is to give the history
of the journal itself, but inevitably innumerable sidelights are
thrown on the literary and political history of the late eighteenth
century and the nineteenth. The present volume deals with the
formative period up to 1841, before the coming of Delane. The
early chapters describe the beginnings of The Times, first pub-
lished as the Daily Universal Register and owned by John
Walter I, who regarded the paper as an appendage of his busi-
ness as a bookseller. A detailed account is given of the accep-
tance by the whole press of the practice of receiving 'salaries'

17 The History of The Times, 'The Thunderer in the Making*, 1785-
1841. Written, Printed, and Published at the Office of The Times,
Printing House Square, pp. xx+515. 15*.

20 LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM

for the insertion of desirable news and opinions. Gradually The
Times won itself free from this position into a tradition of
independent comment. Two personalities stand out from this
early period. John Walter II, the son of the first proprietor,
built up an independent news service, fought the Post Office,
and enhanced the respect in which writers to daily journals were
held. Further, he was the first proprietor to entrust the full
control of his staff and the policy of his paper to an editor. He
was fortunate in having the services of Thomas Barnes who
emerges from this history as a powerful figure and one of
importance in the history of journalism. The volume is amply
illustrated with portraits, facsimiles, and caricatures.

While The Times produces the first volume of its detailed
history, Kurt von Stutterheim has composed a compact and
informative history 18 of the English press as a whole. His early
chapters give an account of news-writing in England from the
Elizabethan times down to the eighteenth century. Though he
is forced to brevity, his work shows the judgement of one who is
familiar with his theme. The more original portion of his study
deals with the modern and contemporary phases of journalistic
development, particularly of the period in which the popular
newspapers began to compete with the older journalistic tradi-
tion. His survey is valuable not only in its historical aspects
but in its analysis of the social and national influence of the
new journalism. He makes some enlightening comparisons on
the contrasts between the development and organization of the
press in England and in Germany.

Henry Guppy, the Librarian of the Rylands Library in
Manchester, has contributed a valuable pamphlet 19 on the trans-
mission of the Bible from the earliest times down to the Revised
Version of 1881-95. This monograph was written to accompany
the exhibition of manuscripts and printed books in the Rylands
Library on the four-hundredth anniversary of the publication
of Miles Coverdale's Bible, completed in October 1535. Guppy's

18 The Press in England, by Kurt von Stutterheim. Allen and Unwin.
pp. 223. 8s, 6d.

19 A Brief Sketch of the History of the Transmission of the Bible, &c. 9
by Henry Guppy. Manchester U.P. pp. vi+70. 2s.

GENERAL WORKS 21

study is accompanied by a number of facsimiles, and with two
bibliographies : the first on 'Works for Study of Original Texts ',
and the second on 'Aids to the Study of Later Versions other
than English'.

Mark Longaker has attempted a survey 20 of the * modern
school of biography'. His approach is discursive, and he has
little to say of the earlier traditions of biographical writing
against which the modern practitioners rebeEed. Nor does he
distinguish sufficiently between contemporary biographers in
their knowledge, integrity, and literary skill. His survey covers
in some detail the work of Lytton Strachey, A. Maurois, E.
Ludwig, P. Guedalla, and Hilaire Belloc. He has further some
consideration of the modern school of biography in America.

J. 0. Major has printed a dissertation 21 on the role of memoirs
in English biography and fiction. He shows the development of
memoirs in France and the relations between the French and
English types. From this introductory study he proceeds to
examine the degree to which memoir-writing anticipates the
methods of modern biography, and the contribution which it
makes to the portraiture of character. Further, he considers its
relationship to the 'fiction of amorous intrigue in high society'
and to historical fiction. The most interesting part of his work
is his detailed study of the relationship of the work of Defoe to
his general theme. While the terminal date of his study is 1740,
he adds by way of an appendix a chapter on c the role of the
memoirs in Sir Walter Scott's historical novels'.

Among the volumes of collected papers the outstanding is
the posthumous edition 22 by Edna Purdie of the essays and
addresses of J. G. Robertson. Should any reader need confirma-
tion of the width and insight of Robertson's approach to the
literature of western Europe he would find it amply in this
volume. The most impressive section is on Scandinavian litera-

20 Contemporary Biography, by Mark Longaker, Pennsylvania Univ.
and O.U. Presses, pp.258. Us. 6<L

21 The Eole of Personal Memoirs in English Biography and Novel, by
J. C. Major. Philadelphia: Univ. of Penns. Press, pp. 176.

22 Essays and Addresses on Literature, by J. G. Robertson, ed. by
Edna Pin-die. Koutledge. pp. viii+314. 12s. 6<2.

22 LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM

ture. The paper on S5ren Kierkegaard had already been
published, as had the article on Henrik Pontoppidan, but the
lecture on * Strindberg's position in European literature ' appears
now for the first time. In many ways this is the most interest-
ing item in the volume, suggestive of Robertson's solidity in
detail and of his wide-ranging sympathies in literature. The
outstanding feature of the Scandinavian section is a series of
articles on Ibsen, none of which had previously been published.
They cover the whole of Ibsen's work as a poet and a dramatist
and make a definite contribution to the criticism in English
of Ibsen's work. German literature is naturally generously
represented. The editor collects a number of Robertson's studies
of individual authors, Franz Grillparzer, Gottfried Keller, Carl
Spitteler, and Lessing. Further, she adds three lectures on
more general themes. ' The Reconciliation of Classic and Roman-
tic', is an historical analysis which, while founding itself on
German literature, develops into a consideration of the implica-
tions for western Europe of a problem examined elsewhere by
Robertson in greater detail. In 'The Eighteenth Century' he
considers 'the sudden and apparently unjustified development
of German poetry' in that period a phenomenon which he
explains by Germany's capacity for rising to greatness by
'borrowing from her neighbours, by assimilating their ideas'.
The German section concludes with Robertson's well-known
Taylorian lecture on 'The Gods of Greece in German Poetry'.
The editor also includes three lectures delivered by Robertson
on wider themes. These are 'Literary Cosmopolitanism', 'The
Spirit of Travel in Modern Literature', and 'Literature in the
Universities'. They reveal more directly the principles of
Robertson's criticism, implicit in all the studies in this volume,
especially his belief in comparative studies, not for the sake of
any eclectic pedantry but from a humanist's faith in the growth
of the creative power in man from the union of elements
derived from more than one national or racial culture.

Sir John Squire has issued two volumes of collected papers.
In Reflections and Memories he has brought together a number

23 Reflections and Memories, by Sir John Squire. Heinemann. pp.
viii+314. 8s. M.

GENERAL WORKS 23

of essays most of which have been previously published. Some
of these are discursive essays on general themes. Of those on
literary subjects the major contribution is his introduction to
the works of James Ekoy Flecker, which is useful for bio-
graphical matter and from a critical standpoint still remains as
the most valuable summary of Mecker's work as a poet. His
brief essay on John Freeman is important mainly for personal
reminiscences, as is his study of Julius West, the author of
the History of Chartism. The volume also includes an essay on
4 Dr. Johnson's contributions to other peoples' works', an inter-
esting estimate of Johnson's dedications and prefaces ; a short
essay on 'Elizabethan Song', first published as a preface to an
anthology; a study of Jane Austen, which originally served a
similar purpose; and in conclusion an essay on e Women's Verse '.
Sir John has also collected 24 two series of lectures which
were originally designed for delivery to popular audiences. The
first on 'the enjoyment of words' is an analysis of words in
conversation, in prose, and in verse. Throughout the purpose
of instruction struggles with difficulty, but usually with success,
with the desire to entertain. The second series on 'the enjoy-
ment of literary forms' finds Squire in a region where he can
write simply and easily and yet with discernment and originality,

John Hampden edits an interesting symposium 25 of essays
by contemporary writers who may be regarded as 'partners'
in book production and criticism. Stanley Unwin contributes
an introduction with some brief but illuminating comments on
publishing. Of particular interest is his discussion of the posi-
tion of the publisher in relation to the law of libel. Later in the
volume he writes on 'English Books Abroad'. Frank Swinner-
ton writes on 'Authorship', and advances the belief that con-
temporary literature suffers from 'an excessive concern with
either publicity or aestheticism'. D. Kilham Roberts describes
the functions of 'The Literary Agent ', and W. G. Taylor com-
ments on 'Publishing'. G. Wren Howard gives a practical
discussion of modern 'Book Production', and the late Gerald

24 Flowers of Speech, by Sir John Squire. Allen and Unwin. pp. 151.
4*. 6d.

26 The Book World, ed. by John Hampden. Nelson, pp.vii+232, 6*.

24 LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM

Gould considers the function of ' Reviewing ' in popular journals.
J. G. Wilson writes on 'Bookselling in London' ; Basil Blackwell
has an entertaining essay on 'Provincial Bookselling ', and J.
Ainslie Thin considers the free-lance practice of the trade in
'Second-Hand Bookselling'. The volume concludes with con-
tributions by Charles Newell on 'The Public Library 3 , and by
F. R. Richardson on 'The Circulating Library'. The volume has
much unusual information and maintains a consistent standard
of interest.

Of the Essays and Studies, vol. xx, 26 of the English Association
one only is on a general theme. E. M. W. Tillyard replies to C. S.
Lewis's essay on 'The Personal Heresy in Criticism' (see The
Tear's Work, xv. 23). He attempts to redefine the 'personality'
encountered in a work of art. The trivial or anecdotal elements
in the life of an artist are unrevealing and unnecessary to
criticism, but there remains, partially discovered in the creative
work itself, a 'mental pattern'. Part of the satisfaction of
literature is a contact with this 'pattern', which in the work of
any significant artist is immediately impressive. He examines
Eliot's contention that poetry is an 'escape from personality'
and suggests that the escape is from 'the accidents that attend
a person in everyday life ' : the more a poet loses himself in his
work the more 'likely is the reader to hail the poet's characteris-
tic, unmistakable self, ipsissimus cum minime ipse 9 . The position
varies with each writer, from the 'fluid' personality of Shake-
speare with 'an almost unexampled power of adapting itself
to the shifting experiences of life 3 to the more 'rigid' per-
sonality of Milton. With much that Lewis had advanced in his
essay Tillyard finds himself in agreement.

The Royal Society of Literature has issued another volume 27
of its annual transactions. This year's collection is published
under the editorship of the Earl of Lytton, who in a brief
introduction passes in review the work of his contributors.
The contents are as usual, varied and interesting. St. John

26 Essays and Studies, by Members of the English Association, vol. xx,
s ed. by George Cookson. O.U.P. pp. 151. 7s. Qd.

27 Essays by Divers Hands, vol. xiv, ed. by the Earl of Lytton.
O.U.P. for R.S.L. pp. 165. 7*.

GENERAL WORKS 25

Ervine in 'The Plays of Noel Coward' makes a serious claim
for Coward as a dramatist. H. Hardy Wallis in ' James Thomson
and Ms "City of Dreadful Night 5 " gives a general critical
estimate of Thomson's work. W. B. Inge writes on * Plato and
Buskin'. He shows that Ruskin was a student of Plato, and
while he did not possess Plato's mysticism he was more in-
debted to him than to any one, except Carlyle. An attempt is
made to contrast the problems which faced Plato and Buskin
and to use the comparison to estimate Buskin's contribution
to nineteenth-century civilization. Anthony Deane writes on
Mark Twain, a discursive essay but composed with evident
enjoyment. Bobert L. Bamsey discusses 'Some English Letter
Writers of the Seventeenth Century', and quotes, with com-
ments, from the Verney Memoirs and other collections. The
most impressive item in the volume is D. Nichol Smith's
lecture, * Jonathan Swift, Some Observations', which selects,
for detailed examination, some salient features of Swift's verse
and prose (see below pp. 313-14).

Anthologies of verse are still numerous. M. M, Gray will
place many students in his debt with an anthology 28 of Scottish
poetry from 1350 to the Union of the Crowns. His work has a
brief introduction and a glossary, but it concentrates on the
presentation of texts. The volume opens with a useful group of
selections from Barbour's Bruce. The Kingis Quair is given in
an abridged form, and Schir William Wallace is represented by
five passages. Henryson is generously represented with a selec-
tion which includes the whole of The Testament of Cresseid.
Dunbar appears in thirty pieces, judiciously chosen to illustrate
the varied aspects of his poetical talents. Along with a number
of anonymous poems selections are published from Sir David
Lindsay, Alexander Scott, Sir Bichard Maitland, Alexander
Montgomerie, Alexander Hume, Stewart of Baldynnis, William
Fowler, and James VI. Some readers might possibly have
welcomed notes on the poems, but probably Gray could have
inserted these only by some sacrifice of the selections which
have been generously given.

28 Scottish Poetry from Barbour to James VI, ed. by M. M. Gray.
Dent. pp. xxx+385. Is. Qd.

26 LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM

The most elaborate anthology of verse 29 this year appears
under the general editorship of Charles Williams. Lord David
Cecil, E. de Selincourt, and E. M. W. Tillyard have acted with
him as associate editors. Two rules were laid down by the
publisher for the volume: (1) it should contain nothing which
was in the Oxford Book of English Verse or the Golden Treasury ;
(2) every poem included should be of poetic importance. The
range of the volume is from the medieval lyric to the death of
G-. M. Hopkins. Selections are included as well as complete
poems, and there are some brief but commendable biographical
notes. The delimitations set by the publisher give the volume
an inevitable unevenness, as if the reader were walking through
a picture gallery from which the main exhibits had been re-
moved. But he is presumed to have the other anthologies in
his possession, and he has the compensation of finding new
poems instead of the old exhibits. The distinguishing feature
of the volume is a generous and well-chosen selection of dramatic
verse mainly of the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods . Williams
has also included a number of poems which contain critical
comment. The volume is certainly a worthy companion to its
predecessors. Many poems here enter the world of anthology
for the first time, and the selection of the verse of minor writers
has been particularly well contrived.

A less ambitious work 30 has been produced by R. L. M6groz,
who publishes a volume of selections of dramatic verse from
Shakespeare and his contemporaries.

By far the most original anthology 31 of the year has been
provided by W. H. Auden and John G-arrett. Their governing
principle is that 'no poetry, which when mastered, is not better
heard than read, is good poetry'. This is supplemented by the
belief that poetry 'can appeal to every level of consciousness',
and that poetry is not primarily an escape from reality'. Their
anthology does not aim at illustrating literary tendencies or

29 The New BooJc of English Verse, ed. by Charles Williams. Gollancz.
pp. 828. Is. 6d.

30 Dramatic Verse, ed. by R. L. M<groz. Pitman, pp. xiii+116.
2s. Qd.

31 The Poet's Tongue, by W. H. Auden and John Garrett. Bell,
pp. xxxiv+222. 65.

GENERAL WORKS 27

influences; it tends rather to show that verse can. have an
interest independent of period. To further their purpose they
introduce a number of ballads, folk-songs, nursery rhymes,
sea-shanties, and broad-sheet verses. One may look in vain for
some of the great names or for some of the pieces that have
almost an hereditary claim to appearance in an anthology.
The effect they gain is, however, original, without any sense of
bravura or perversity. Auden has established himself as a poet,
and his view of the function of poetry has an importance. This
selection and its introduction illustrate his position : c everything
that we remember no matter how trivial: the mark on the wall,
the joke at luncheon, word games, these, like the dance of a
stoat or the raven's gamble, are equally the subject of poetry. *
They become poetry once they are converted into 'memorable
speech 3 . In some ways Auden's statement is a protest against
Arnold's essay on poetry. Arnold, when he had lost his faith,
led poetry up to the high altar to fill a space that was empty.
Auden, who has a faith, though not the faith which Arnold at
length half-discovered, would lead poetry out into the world
again and let her roam where she listeth, even let her laugh if
she wishes.

Cowling has prepared an 'outline' 32 of English verse in the
form of an anthology with an introduction. His survey covers
the development of verse from Chaucer to Arnold, with selec-
tions as well as complete poems. Questions of proportion will
always be in dispute in such a volume. Some will think that if
Shakespeare is represented with only four sonnets and Donne
with two poems, Scott, who always enjoyed broad acres, has
had an over-ample terrain with four pieces, and Wordsworth
over-lucky with a plot of ground large enough for fourteen
selections. With the critical opinions of the introduction dissent
can be based on more rational grounds. It is strange to find
still the comment that 'English literature begins its triumphal
progress with Chaucer', and that the centuries before are 'lack-
ing in literary distinction apart from Beowulf and Sir Qawain'.
Nor is it just to say that e the triumphs of prose die with the

32 The Outline of English Verse, ed. by G, H. Cowling. Macmillan.
pp. xxv+530. 6*.

28 LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM

convention or fashion in which, they were written'. Cowling
has been led, perhaps, to speak too emphatically in an attempt
to sketch the history of verse in a brief introduction. The
anthology can speak better for itself.

Gollancz continues to issue his anthology 33 of 'famous plays'
of the year. The selection for 1935 includes Night Must Fall,
by Emlyn Williams ; Accent on Youth, by Samson Raphaelson ;
Close Quarters, adapted by Gilbert Lennox from Attentat by
W. 0. Somin ; Grief Goes Over, by Merton Hodge ; The Mask of
Virtue, adapted by Ashley Dukes from Die Marquise von Arcis
by Carl Sternheim; Youth at the Helm, adapted by Hubert
Griffith from the German of Paul Vulpius.

A number of miscellaneous volumes have been received.
P. Gurrey has written a brief study 34 of 'the appreciation of
poetry'. His work is designed mainly for those who have 'to
teach poetry', but its scholarly approach and sensitive pre-
sentation give it a value beyond this original purpose. Gurrey's
main principle is that poetry is ' communication ', and he analyses
the integral parts of the poem which make communication
possible. Throughout he keeps in mind the contemporary dis-
cussions on verse, particularly the controversy on 'meaning'
in poetry.

Logan Pearsall Smith has written a pamphlet 35 of an openly
polemical nature. His aim is to attack the contemporary critics,
mainly of the 'Cambridge school ', who wish to confine prose to
the function of the bare and direct conveyance of a meaning.
He suggests that this group regard euphony in prose and the
cultivation of 'style' as decadent. He attempts to show from
an historical survey how much in English prose would have
been lost if these purposes had been consistently maintained.
Further, he argues that the delimitations of prose and verse
can never be strictly defined, and that prose can share the
evocative powers of verse. It might be advanced that he never

83 Famous Plays of 1935. Gollancz. pp. 622. 7*. 6tf .

34 The Appreciation of Poetry, by P. Gurrey. O.U.P. pp. 120. 3*. 6rf.

35 Fine Writing, by Logan Pearsall Smith. S.P.E. Tract XLVL
O.U.P.

GENERAL WORKS 29

folly comprehends the purposes of Ms antagonists, nor the
condition in contemporary letters which they are attempting
to combat. His purpose is not to be judicial, but to rage open
warfare, as one may see from the passage in his essay which
suggests that 'to be educated [at Cambridge] is now the biggest
handicap an artist can be called upon to endure *.

J. M. Gover has published a lecture 36 on the literary associa-
tions of the Middle Temple, in which, in a pleasant discursive
narrative, he recalls the names of the many men of letters who
were members of the Inn. He also comments on the associations
with the Middle Temple of writers such as Goldsmith and John-
son who, though they were never called, had close contact with
the society.

36 Literary Associations of the Middle Temple, by J. M. Gover. Pitman,
pp. vii-j-35. 2s.

II

PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS

By C. L. WBEKK

Two bibliographical notes may conveniently be placed at the
head of this chapter. A number of matters which are of interest
to some students of English philology but which do not properly
fall within the scope of either the Modern Humanities Research
Association's Annual Bibliography of English Language and
Literature or The Tear's Work are fully listed in the Jahres-
bericht uber die Erscheinungen auf dem Gebiete der germanischen
Philologie, although the value of this bibliography is somewhat
impaired by its retarded appearance nearly three years after
the period it covers. 1 Thus, for example, are included sections
on general Indo-European philology, the history of Germanic
philology, Runic inscriptions, &c. 3 and the languages related to
English all find a place.

The ever-increasing work of America, both in general lin-
guistic science and in English philology, with its marked growth
in periodical literature, makes the section entitled American
Bibliography for 1 935 which A. C. Baugh contributes to P.M.L.A .
(Dec. Supplement) of special usefulness : for here are to be found
several items which have escaped the compilers of the biblio-
graphical lists supplied by various periodicals such as R.E.S.
and M.L.R.

Though a considerable number of books have appeared in
the year under review on both sides of the Atlantic on how to
use the English language for success in life, only two need be
noticed here under the head of grammar before passing on to
the more immediate subject-matter of this survey. For the
year has given us the first attempt in English to introduce
the beginner to comparative Indo-European grammar under

1 Jahresbericht uber die Erscheinungen auf dem Gebiete der germanischen
Philologie, herausgegeben von der Gesellschaft fur deutsche Philologie in
Berlin; Neue Folge, Band XII, Bibliographic 1932. Berlin: Walter de
Gruyter. pp. 274 BM. 17.50. 1935.

PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS 31

the guidance of an experienced classical philologist, and an
elaborate treatment of the English Parts of Speech and their
accidence by an American scholar of repute.

T. Hudson- Williams's Short Introduction to the Study of Com-
parative Grammar 2 tries to give the student already possessed
of a sound grounding in the classical tongues a clear sketch
(in only 78 pages) of those primary facts about Indo-European
its phonology, accidence, and general character which are
so often awkwardly prefixed to OE. grammars and histories of
our language. Such a book was needed, and Hudson-Williams
has, on the whole, succeeded, despite the difficulties caused by
extreme compression. A somewhat dogmatic presentation of
disputed matters and the appearance of ignoring some recent
advances in knowledge are probably inevitable in a book of
this type, and a larger and more discursive work of the kind
will be wished for by most readers of this pioneering attempt.

The long-expected second volume of Curme and Kurath's
Grammar of the English Language, under the title of Parts of
Speech and Accidence, has come from Curme, whose Syntax
(noticed in The Year's Work, xii. 43) formed the third and final
volume of this ambitious work. 3 The first volume, on the history
of the language, by Kurath, is still awaited. Curme, as is to
be expected, treats English from a modern standpoint, though
he uses earlier Modern English a good deal, 'as the great master-
pieces of these centuries are still read'. OE. and ME. naturally
only receive very occasional mention. The various verbal forms
receive especially full measure of elucidation, and some attempt
is made to render the whole equally useful for both American
and English students. For Curme, English is 'a development
reflecting our inner life and struggles ' ; and the living and ever-
changing language of the present is fully and discursively
handled. Yet the traditional grammatical terms are, for the

2 A Short Introduction to the Study of Comparative Grammar (Indo-
European), by T. Hudson-Williams. Cardiff: Univ. of Wales Press,
pp. xii+78. 35. 6dL

3 A Grammar of the English Language, in three vols. : vol. 2: Parts of
Speech and Accidence, by George 0. Curme. Boston: Heath, pp. xiii+
370. Ss.Qd.

32 PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS

most part, retained. As in so many recent works of American
scholars, the English reader is likely to find the term 'British'
as applied both to our own and the language of the United
States, a source of confusion or irritation; and Curme has
Northern British, Southern British, Common British standard, and
Current English rather bewilderingly, for instance, on p. viii of
his Preface.

The increase of English studies in many parts of the world,
and especially the tendency of linguistic theorists to work in
English material, necessarily make the matter of this chapter
more and more heterogeneous and far-reaching. It is therefore
proposed to group the material roughly under the following
heads for the sake of convenience in reference, though of course
no seriously systematic classification is aimed at, and there will
be some overlapping: (a) linguistic theory as applied to Eng-
lish, (6) lexicography and etymology, (c) history of the language,
(d) place-names, (e) contemporary usage, (/) Americana, and
(g) miscellaneous.

The holding of the Second International Congress of Phonetic
Sciences of July 1934 in London, of which J. R. Eirth gives a
summary report in English Studies (Oct.), may well remind us
of the fact that the continental science of 'Phonology' has, for
good or ill, come definitely to hold some place in English studies.

* Perhaps the most abstract branch of phonetics ', writes Firth,
'is what is nowadays called phonology, which, quite unlike
experimental phonetics does not concern itself with "sounds"
or "phones" as specific speech events, but with whole systems
of functioning sound-types of languages considered as wholes.
It is not the science of speech sounds but the science of these
functional units, or phonemes. 5 And he tells us that, though all
the fifteen branches of phonetics had a place in the discussions,
the phoneme was everywhere dominant. In using the term

* phonology', then, we must now distinguish between its 'old
style' simple signification and this 'new style' implement of
Slavonic psychological theorists and their followers : and indeed
it must be even admitted that the most striking whether or
not the most permanently valuable work of 1935 in general
linguistic science has been on the phoneme. If it be asked what

PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WOEKS 33

has all this to do with English philologists, the reply comes in
the form of B. Trnka's Phonological Analysis of Present-day
Standard English* Here is shown the application of the theories
of the School of Prague to current English in a systematic
analysis of its sounds. A most useful appendix reprints the
Projet de terminologie phonologique standardises put forward
by the Prague Phonological Conference of 1930 ; and this should
be mastered before studying the detailed analyses, since Trnka
employs the Prague terms throughout. An introductory dis-
cussion in which Trnka defines the phoneme makes clear the
attitude of the writer which is fairly representative of the newest
thought on the subject.

'The fundamental linguistic oppositions which cannot be ana-
lysed into smaller units are called phonemes. Thus in English the
sounds contained in the words hand, hat, home, are phonemes,
because they stand in functional opposition and are able to dis-
tinguish one word from another, e.g. hand land, home comb, had
hat, &c. The same phoneme may be realized phonetically in differ-
ent ways according to its combinations and positions in words, or
to the styles of the language, not to mention individual shades of
articulation: but yet these different realizations may go back to
the same phoneme. For example the phoneme [r] in Southern
standard English is pronounced differently according to its posi-
tion 1, after t; 2, after d; 3, before any vowel not preceded by
t or d: but these differences in the pronunciation of [r] do not
constitute the oppositions able to differentiate the conceptual
meaning of the words. '

In his Preface Trnka says that "the problem of the psycho-
logical progress of understanding a language may be solved
only on the basis of phonological (or phonemic) analysis 5 . An
elaborate classification of the phonemes of the native words
of English follows which cannot here be summarized : but the
experiment is of interest. Of the practical value of the new
phonology it is clearly far too early to speak, since everything
is at the stage of speculation and experiment. The phoneme is
no new discovery. Bather it symbolizes a striving after a more
subtle and exact description of linguistic facts long known to

4 Studies in English by Members of the English Seminar of the Charles
University, Prague. Sumptibus Facultatis Philosophicae Universitatis
Carolinae: vol. v. pp. 188.

2762.16

U PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS

students, with, a distinct leaning to abstract and psychological
analysis. Historical or 'diachronic 3 aspects of language are
ignored by the Prague phonologists; and English and American
students of the phoneme have tended of late to emphasize
rather all that is purely physical in describing similar sets of
linguistic facts.

'What is a phoneme?' has been the most widely written-of
problem of the year; and W. P. TwaddelTs pamphlet On
Defining the Phoneme goes a long way in showing up the un-
satisfactory nature of all previous attempts at accurate defini-
tion even if his own proposal may seem too complex and
almost self-contradictory for permanent keeping. 5 Twaddell
effectively rejects conceptions of the phoneme which tend to
be purely mental, like most of the Prague definitions, and is
equally well able to show the inadequacy of purely physical
explanations like those of Daniel Jones. He recognizes that
the notion implied in the phoneme is not new, but that its
emergence as a technical term is the result of the increased
striving for accuracy and the more subtle means of observation
of linguistic phenomena characteristic of our age. He himself
would evade the difficulties of purely mental or purely physical
definition by regarding the whole matter as a useful fiction
that is by defining the phoneme 'as an abstractional fictitious
unit \ a definition which may enable the scholar to use this
valuable concept without too clearly committing himself to an
exact meaning for the term.

'It is 3 , he says, 'what might be called the thesis of this paper
that it is inexpedient and probably impossible (at present) to
associate the term with a reality : probably impossible, because the
attempts by competent and conscientious linguists to define the
phoneme in terms of reality have not been satisfactory; inexpedi-
ent, because the purposes to which the term may be put in our
discipline are served equally well or better by regarding the
phoneme as an abstractional, fictitious unit. '

Though this conclusion may seem disappointing, TwaddelTs

5 On Defining the Phoneme, by W. Freeman Twaddell. (Language
Monographs published by the Linguistic Society of America, XVI.)
Baltimore: Waverly Press, pp.62. $1.25.

PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS 35

exposition of the defects of Ms phonematic predecessors is clear
and convincing and definitely clarifies a difficult matter.

Morris Swadesh, in a forceful and clear article in Language,
xi. 3 (Sept.), demonstrates the weakness of TwaddelPs over-
complex definition of the phoneme, under the title of Twaddell
on Defining the Phoneme.

W. L. Graff, in his Remarks on the Phoneme (American Speech,
April), emphasizes the danger of the psychological point of
view ; and, following a line of thought suggested probably by
De Saussure's famous distinction between Langue and Parole
and that recently formulated by A. H. Gardiner between Speech
and Language, tells us very neatly that 'it may be said, then,
that the phoneme is in the same relation to the phone as the
mnemonic word is to the speech-word (i.e. the word actually
placed in a speech context)'.

But the most important article on this theme comes from the
School of Prague itself: for Josef Vachek's Several thoughts on
several Statements of the Phoneme theory (American Speech } Dec.),
is a brilliant and clear exposition.

Following Graff's line of thought noticed in the last paragraph,
he shows how purely psychological explanations of the phoneme
miss the point, thus freeing himself from what is supposed to
be the weakness of Prague. He then attacks the merely physi-
cal explanations of Jones and the American Bloomfield and
stresses the fundamentally functional meaning of the term as a
basic conception of the Prague linguists (Trnka, Mathesius, and
the rest). His own definition of the phoneme is as follows:
'The phoneme is a signal-like counter of the language which
becomes manifested in actual speech by means of (two or more)
sounds which are (1) related in character and (2) mutually
exclusive as to their phonic surroundings. 3 He shows how the
phoneme is a fact of la Langue (following De Saussure), and
the phone (or sound) of la Parole. A valuable bibliography of
the whole subject concludes this admirable piece of work.

N. Trubetzkoy, a pioneer of world-wide repute among modern
philologists, has written a pamphlet intended to guide those
seeking to describe a language in the new way. He calls it

36 PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WOEKS

Anleitung zu phonologischen Beschreibungen.* After somewhat
cavalierly dismissing the older philology as hopelessly one-sided,
he provides brief definitions of the new terms and some sugges-
tions for the practical application of the new Phonologic.

R. S. Heffner, in a paper in Harvard Studies and Notes in
Philology and Literature, xvii (1935), discusses in his Note on
Phonologic Oppositions the application of the new phoneme
theory to 'dead' languages and especially Germanic. He finds
that the time is not yet ripe for doing this with profit, although
there may be hope for the future.

J. R. Firth in his paper The Use and Distribution of certain
English Sounds Phonetics from a Functional point of view
(English Studies, xvii, Feb.) continues the discussion begun in
his Speech (1930) and Linguistics and the Functional Point of
View (English Studies, xvi).

Vilem Mathesius applies the new ' science' to foreign ele-
ments in a language in his Zur synchronischen Analyse fremden
Sprachguts (Eng. Stud., Ixx) ; and among many examples from
Czech are a few interesting English words examined.

J. R. Firth calls for a general overhauling of our linguistic
theories and apparatus, especially in the field of semantics, in
a somewhat amorphous but very stimulating paper entitled
The Technique of Semantics contributed to Transactions of the
Philological Society. He examines the history of the term
Semantic, touches on the origin of the phoneme-theory, and
makes an outline of a new technique for the study of words
synchronically and with emphasis on their Sociological con-
text 3 . He shows what a fascinating study the new technique
might lead to, though the article is merely tentative. He ends
with a plea for a dictionary of linguistic terminology in English
and for a dictionary of current idiom and usage,

A more philosophic and fundamental attempt is made to
express the consequences of recent linguistic theory by Karl
Biihler in his Sprachtheorie. 1 Following in the steps of Paul,

6 Anleitung zu phonologiscJien Beschreibungen. Edition du Oercle
Linguistic de Prague, pp. 32.

7 Sprachtheorie, die Darstellungsfunktwn der Sprache, by Karl Buhler.
Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1934. pp. xvi+434.

PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS 37

De Saussure, and A. H. Gardiner (he especially admires the
last named though not always agreeing with him), he makes a
thorough examination of linguistic theory in the light of both
the old and the new scholarship a very useful survey of funda-
mental postulates.

Karl Haag's little pamphlet Das DenJcgerust der Sprache 8 is
mainly semasiological in character and will be found useful to
students of semantics.

It is refreshing, after all this scientific jargon of phoneme and
phonology and there are those who would add to our termino-
logy morphemes and taxemes, and even morphonemes and tonemes
to turn to Sir Richard Paget riding his amusing hobby-horse :
for in his This English he returns to his now well-known theory
of the origin of language in gesture 9 with a demonstration of
its consequences for English. Instead of regarding our language
as a living, growing, and changing thing, we should, he holds,
control and guide its future by our knowledge of its funda-
mentally symbolic nature. Thus, for instance, 'We know that
the a in calm ought to be "broad" because the symbolism of
calm is expressed by the tongue being held low and flat in the
mouth like the surface of unruffled water. '

Another amusing, if not very important, investigation of this
year has been carried out on 'language taboos' by J. M. Stead-
man, Jnr., and the results embodied in two articles A Study
of Verbal Taboos (American Speech, April), and Language Taboos
of American College Students (English Studies, June) . By c taboos '
Steadman means words which are consciously avoided in speech
or writing, for whatever reason. The types of such words are
classified, and some interesting light is thrown on the American
vocabulary as, for example, the avoidance of such an archaism
as poke = bag.

The growing recognition of the importance of intonation in
linguistic matters has led W. Franz, the specialist in Shake-

8 Das Denkgerust der Sprache, by K. Haag. Heidelberg: Winter,
pp. 44. KM. 0.75.

9 This English, by Sir Richard Paget, with a Preface by R. R. Marett.
Kegan Paul, Trench, Trlibner. pp. xii+118. 4$. 6dL

38 PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS

speare's pronunciation, to investigate carefully the rhythm of
Mark Antony's famous speech to the Roman citizens in Julius
Caesar: and this paper, entitled Klangwirkung und Wortstellung
(Eng. Stud., Ixx) is of the sort that the late Karl Luick, that
great master-historian of our grammar, to whom this volume
of Eng. Stud, is a memorial, would have certainly appreciated.

Two impressions are left by the year's work indicated above.
First, that the phoneme has been shown definitively to be
fundamentally functional ; and secondly, that the young science
of Linguistics is trying more and more to claim separate exis-
tence and to develop its own technique in growing isolation
from those historical and traditional factors which belong to
Philology in the common English acceptance of the term.

Once again a large amount of work has appeared this year
on vocabulary from almost every point of view, but especially
historical and etymological. But though reports continue to
reach us of plans and preliminaries of the several important
dictionaries already projected, W. A. Craigie's Dictionary of
the Older Scottish Tongue is the only strictly lexicographical
work 10 of outstanding significance which has made published
progress. Of this pioneer work the general characteristics were
noticed in The Year's Work, xii. 38: but Craigie has himself set
out the well-known general facts concerning the language dealt
with in his Dictionary in a paper contributed to the Transactions
of the Philological Society entitled Older Scottish and English: a
Study in Contrasts.

J. F. Bense, whose Dictionary of the Low-Dutch Element in the
English Vocabulary was first noticed in The Tear's Work, vii.
41-2, has issued his fourth part, 11 carrying this learned and
discursive work as far as Smeary and leaving only one more part
to complete the whole. Bense has added a 'Third Additional
List of Books referred to ? , and continues with extraordinary

10 A Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue from the Twelfth century
to the end of the Seventeenth; part v. Chcm^erlkme-Commove. pp. 481-
600, by Sir William A. Craigie. O.TJ.P. 21s.

11 A Dictionary of the Low-Dutch Element in the English Vocabulary,
by J. F. Bense. Part IV, Plashment-Smeary. pp. vii+289-416. 16s.

PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS 39

thoroughness his efforts to make the debt to Dutch and the
other Low German dialects seem as large as possible. In treating
of polder = tf a piece of low-lying land reclaimed from the sea 5 ,
he very emphatically states the Dutch origin of the word
without so much as mentioning the evidence of place-names,
which, as A. Mawer has shown (Problems of Place-name Study,
pp. 51-2), may well be argued in favour of a native English
word cognate with, but not directly adapted from, the Dutch.
The truth is that the origin of polder, as of so many other
words discussed by Bense, remains in doubt : but this regular
giving to the Dutch of the benefit of every possible doubt has
tended to make the Dutch element in our vocabulary appear
to be far larger than most philologists would be disposed to
allow. The foreigner's almost unavoidable ignorance of certain
aspects of our colloquial language has sometimes led Bense
into wrong inferences inferences which would be entirely
legitimate if the evidence to be considered consisted of written
English alone.

Several 'dictionaries' of a more popular type have appeared
this year which contain matter of interest to scholars incident-
ally. These are dictionaries of American usage, of proverbs,
and of the kind of English that the foreigner needs.

HorwilTs Dictionary of Modern American Usage 1 * covers those
words (allowing for differences merely of form) which are in use
both here and in the United States, deliberately excluding all that
is entirely American, which latter, he says, must be left to the
great Historical Dictionary of American English which Craigie
is now preparing at Chicago. The book is primarily intended for
Englishmen visiting America or using American books, Ameri-
cans wishing to realize more fully the individuality of their own
country's linguistic character (for whose benefit a good deal of
space has been given to specially English usages), and for all
such linguistic students as are interested in semantic change.
Nothing historical has been attempted ; but Horwill has col-
lected the whole of his material from thirty years of observation
as an Englishman. While slang is professedly excluded, it has,

12 A Dictionary of Modern American Usage, by H. W. Horwill.
O.TLP. pp.xii-t-360. Is.U,

40 PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS

naturally, been found difficult to separate this from what is
colloquial: and the English reader will be interested to find
specially marked those usages from America which (a) seem on
the way to becoming naturalized in this country, and (6) those
which have already become part of our language. The book's
title was, as Horwill says, suggested by Fowler's Dictionary of
Modem English Usage ; but its purpose is, of course, far from
that of teaching Americans their own language. The English
student will regret, however, the necessary omission of many
interesting American words not found in English, such as hood-
lum. The book is attractively written, though from a rather
popular point of view, and should greatly stimulate interest in
its subject.

The Oxford Dictionary of English Proverbs, 1 * which contains
over ten thousand items, was the life-work of W. G. Smith,
which his health did not, unfortunately, permit him to revise
himself for the press. The c proverbs' are listed in alphabetical
order by their first letter, though the index gives the main
words of each: and this somewhat awkward plan is further
complicated by the fact that the compiler does not seem to
have set himself any clear definition of a proverb as a guide.
Thus, for example, among the vast number of items which all
begin with the word the, we find Wordsworth's famous 'The
child is father of the man'. Now in what sense is this saying of
the poet a proverb ? The quotations which illustrate it are only
two : one from Samuel Smiles in which Wordsworth is named as
the author of the phrase, and the other from F. W. H. Myers's
book on Wordsworth where the meaning is explained. Mrs.
Heseltine's introductory essay gives an historical account of
the development of the proverb, starting from Bede, with
descriptions of the principal collections that have been made.
She ends by drawing attention to the very interesting recently
discovered Durham Cathedral Library MS. (B. III. 32), which
is an eleventh-century hymnal containing besides the hymns
and ^Blfric's Grammar 46 proverbs in Latin and OE. Some

13 The Oxford Dictionary of English Proverbs, compiled by William
George Smith, with Introduction and Index by Janet E. Heseltine.
O.U.P. pp. xxviii+644. 21s.

PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS 41

of these latter are of considerable importance ; such, for instance,
as that cited on p. xxviii, which seems to throw a clear light on
the interpretation of line 68 of the OE. poem The Wanderer.
She holds out some hope that Max Forster may publish these
proverbs from Durham. The work suffers here and there from
the apparent ignorance of the compiler of the earlier stages of
our language, which leads to misunderstandings like that of
line 236 of The Owl and the Nightingale on p. 153. No account
seems to have been taken of the recent excellent collection of
ME. proverbs published by the John Rylands Library. Every
proverb is illustrated historically by quotations, though com-
pleteness has not been aimed at in this regard. The book does,
however, aim at completeness in recording every proverb in
English from the earliest times to this day.

M. West, in his Definition Vocabulary^ discusses the results
of experiments conducted by the author with a view to dis-
covering what would be the smallest and most useful vocabulary
for the purpose of writing dictionary definitions in English for
foreigners. He concludes on a vocabulary of only 1,923 words,
and proposes to construct a dictionary of 24,000 items in which
the vocabulary of the definitions shall be limited to this list,
which a foreigner able to use an English-English dictionary
must be assumed to know. In the course of the discussion on
dictionary definitions, some very interesting and useful con-
siderations on lexicographical problems are put forward.

The dictionary for which the work noticed in the above
paragraph was done is, in fact, based on a definition-vocabulary
of only 1,490 words, 15 and should answer its purpose well. A plan
of indicating pronunciation by means of numbers placed within
brackets after the words is a novel feature of the book which
may be thought very convenient. Each number corresponds
to a phonetic value. Words whose definition can be clarified
visually are sometimes illustrated by little diagrams (fulcrum,
for instance), or by pictures such as that of the lotus-flower.

14 Definition Vocabulary, by Michael West. TJniv. of Toronto, pp.
105. $1.

15 The New Method English Dictionary, by Michael Philip West and
James Gareth Endicott. Longmans, Green, pp. viii+341.

42 PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS

Of the reports which reach us of the progress of dictionaries
not yet published, the most interesting not to say startling
is the preliminary report on Middle English Dialect Characteris-
tics and Dialect Boundaries which S. Moore, S. B. Meech, and
H. Whitehall have prepared 16 for the projected Middle English
Dictionary. After drawing up a list of definitely localized docu-
ments, and of others which may, for various reasons, be relied
on in the authors' judgement for the purpose in hand, ten
phonological or inflexional characters are taken as indications
of dialect, and the country marked out by 'isophonic' lines
into ten areas, each of which presents a more or less distinct
complex of dialect-characteristics. In the course of 60 pages
considerable detailed reasons are given for the conclusions sug-
gested, though again and again the merely tentative and pro-
visional nature of everything suggested, and the inadequacy of
the material employed, are emphasized. Three maps, showing
the conclusions reached and even suggesting some possible
correlation between physiographical and dialectal characters
are in a pocket at the end of the volume. The documents
selected include only Dan Michel's Ayenbite oflnwyt of the three
great self-consistent ME. MSS. (Ayenbite of Inwyt, Orrmulum,
and the Corpus Christi Cambridge MS. of Ancrene Wisse) which
one would naturally have expected to be taken as the necessary
basis of any study of the type contemplated here. MS. Bodley
34, which is to be reckoned as a basic text along with the
Ancrene Wisse mentioned above, is noticed, but only to be
rejected, apparently for reasons supplied to the writers of this
report by Miss Hope Allen (p. 50) ; and Tolkien's well-known
elucidation of the nature of its language in Essays and Studies by
Members of the English Association for 1929 is not given even
an 'honourable mention'. It should, perhaps, be observed in
passing that Miss Allen's note (M.L.R., Oct. 1933) pointing out
that the marginalia connecting MS. Bodley 34 (and therefore

16 Middle English Dialect Characteristics and Dialect Boundaries; pre-
liminary report of an investigation . . ,, by Samuel Moore, Sanford Brown
Meech, and Harold Whitehall (in Essays and Studies in English and Com-
parative Literature, by Members of the English Department of the
University of Michigan, xiii). Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press, pp.
viii+328. $3.

PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS 43

the Corpus Christ! Ancrene Wisse) with Herefordshire are in
sixteenth-, and not fourteenth-century hands, does not really
affect the argument as to the fundamental value of these MSS.
as representing clearly defined types of pure ME.

Despite the admirable work of R. W. Chambers and M.
Daunt, to which a debt is acknowledged, the expression 'London
English 5 is used too freely; and there are inaccuracies which
may seriously detract from the value of this pioneer work.
Thus, the participle in -nd is taken as a dialect-character,
though every one hitherto has taken the originally Scandinavian
type in -and as something quite distinct. The Poema Morale
is localized at Christchurch (Hants), merely on the evidence of
MS. Egerton 613, ignoring the clearly more important character
of the Trinity as well as of the Digby versions (p, 56). On p. 51
MS. Arundel 57 of the work of Dan Michel is oddly named
Eoyal 19 0. U.

It is sad to have to add that the death of Samuel Moore in
September 1934 not only deprived this report of the advantages
of his revision of the final proofs, but also the whole scheme of
a distinguished and most respected promoter and editor.

It will be appropriate here to note the fundamental reflec-
tions on the making of dictionaries in general put forward
by V. Slovsky in Neophilologus (xx. 2) entitled Considerations
theoriques sur la conception d'un Dictionnaire.

The now common pastime of adding to or correcting the great
Oxford Dictionary is well represented by W. Jaggard in N. and
Q. (Nov. 23) in Words and Meanings: Additions to the 'N.E.D.'.
He cites Dilucidation from the year 1612 as against the O.E.D.'s
entry of three years later, and adds the hitherto unrecorded
meaning 'legal costs' (used humorously) for Giblets from a
work dated 1858. But his principal discovery is the word
Aquadigipsycharmonica a musical instrument of about two
octaves, constructed of wide-mouthed tumblers in graded
sequence, producing a clear bell-like note when played with a
wet finger-tip. Both Goldsmith and Gray appear to have
referred to it.

In the sphere of etymological studies, Mary Serjeantson's

44 PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WOBKS

History of Foreign Words in English 17 must be accorded the
first place. By 'foreign words' Miss Serjeantson means all
those which have entered our language otherwise than by
descent from Germanic itself, and she lays the main emphasis
on their first appearance in England, naturally taking the bulk
of her information from the JEM). The words are classified
according to the languages from which they have come into
English ; and there is also a brief general introduction, and
appendices giving a list of pre-Conquest words from Latin,
notes on the phonology of Latin words in OE., Scandinavian
vowels in OE. and ME., and notes on the phonology of French
words in ME. A bibliography and subject and word-indexes
conclude the book. While the work will be of value to students
of the history of the language, it is intended to appeal to some
extent, apparently, to the educated general reader; and it is
probably for this latter reason that space is given freely to the
translation of OE. words and phrases as well as to that of foreign
material. As the book has to cover the whole of a vast field,
its necessary incompleteness needs no apology : for the material
for a treatment of the whole subject is not yet available, as
Miss Serjeantson remarks. But most students will regret the
omission of most of that historical background which is an
essential part of the study of any kind of language, and often
one has the impression of mere lists of words. Similarly, it may
be regretted by some that more space could not have been given
to semantic matters. The phonological part of the work
mostly in the appendices is technically not quite satisfying,
probably because of the need for condensation. This is espe-
cially noticeable in the appendix on the Scandinavian vowels,
where (as in the handling of OE. lagu and ON". Igg on p. 293)
there seems to be confusion between Primitive Norse, from
which the Scandinavian element in OE. and ME. must be
generally derived, and the * Old Norse ' of dictionaries and of
literature, which corresponded in time rather with ME. than
with OE. and does not show forms early enough to have in-
fluenced English at all considerably. Miss Serjeantson has
carried through a very difficult task with thoroughness and

17 A History of Foreign Words in English, by Mary Serjeantson.
Kegan Paul, Trench, Tnibner. pp. iv+354. 21s.

PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS 45

effectiveness within the limits of her plan, and her book goes
far towards satisfying a very real need.

A. C. Baugh, in M.L.N. (Feb.), reviews Jespersen's tables
showing the numbers of French words which entered our lan-
guage in successive periods, and is able to modify Jespersen's
conclusions and present in this Chronology of French loan-words
in English a slightly more exact and complete picture of the
facts discussed.

G. N. Clark, too, though he disclaims any knowledge of
philology, has written a popular and interesting little pamphlet 18
on The Dutch Influence on the English Vocabulary. Without
attempting to treat the problem technically or folly, he makes
it into a pleasant historical essay.

The kindred problems presented by so-called folk-etymology
and word-contamination have produced two books by young
foreign scholars, of which Maria Houtzager's Unconscious Sound-
and Sense-assimilations 19 is the more important ; for it is vivid
and shows wide learning and interests. Maria Houtzager treats
philosophically of the problem of "popular or folk-etymology 3 ;
that is, the influences of words upon one another, whether in
form or meaning through unconscious processes. But since no
'folk 5 and linguistic changes are far more rapid among the
uneducated consciously forms notions about words and their
uses, she easily proves that the expression is misleading. She
takes the four languages, English, German, Dutch, and Swedish
for her material ; and, while giving selective lists of words which
have developed in form through sound- and sense-assimilation,
pays special attention to place-names, since these latter are
especially liable to the processes here investigated. She is led
to the conclusion that 'The sense-elements play the principal
part in those changes in words designated by the term popular
etymology, and that the sound-elements play a minor part,
although still a part which cannot be neglected'. The main
causes of the observed phenomena are therefore psychological,

18 The Dutch Influence on the English Vocabulary, by G. N. Clark.
S.P.E. Tract xHv. O.U.P. pp. 161-72. Is. 6d.

19 Unconscious Sound- and Sense-assimilations, by Maria Elisabeth
Houtzager. Amsterdam: H. J. Paris, pp. vii+194. Ing. f. 3.

46 PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS

though physiological factors must be taken into account.
The English word-lists and the discussion of some English
place-names will be found to be of general interest and some-
times suggest fresh lines of thought. Words like ambergrease
for ambergris are well known to students; but the quaint
story of the 'Eleven thousand virgins' will be less familiar.
Occasional technical errors like the explanation of standard (of.
the O.E.D.) on p. 61 do not seriously detract from the value of
the work as a whole.

Ursula Behr's doctoral thesis Wortkontamination in der nen-
englischen SchriftspracJie 20 starts with Hermann Paul's defini-
tion of Xontamination from Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte,
and after modifying this a little, is mainly occupied with
the compilation of a list of all the Modern English words
which can be thought to show inter-influence. Contamination is
elaborately classified and the words listed under the appropriate
divisions. Little is offered by way of discussion of fundamental
matters or of the historical background, and there is a good
deal that seems immature or hasty. Nevertheless, the com-
pilation will be found useful to some extent, since it contains
a few examples not elsewhere noticed.

Before turning to more specialized etymological studies, a
passing mention must be made of Ernest Weekley's linguistic
miscellany, Something about Words . 20a It is of the type which the
word-loving public has learned to expect from the author of
The Romance of Words, and, as usual, is of wide and varied
interest. Here are papers and lectures (mostly reprinted) on
the future of English, proverbs, Scott's influence on English,
older etymologists, and place-names, besides others calculated
to amuse and instruct the general reader. The chapter called
'Our Earlier Etymologists', which deals with Minsheu, Skinner,
Junius, Lye, &c., contains pleasing sketches of some of the
earliest English lexicographers and will afford the reader some

20 Wortkontamination in der neuenglischen Schriftsprache, by U. Behr.
WuTzfrurg: Mayr. pp. 156.

20a Something about Words, by Ernest Weekley. John Murray, pp,
viii+233. 6s.

PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS 47

information not easily come by so entertainingly ; but it is too
sketchy and superficial to be a safe guide to tlie serious seeker
after knowledge. Similar remarks might be made on most of
the other chapters. But every one will hope that Weekley will
not be able to carry out his threat to make this his last work of
the kind.

The year has produced a number of notes and small articles
on single lexicographical problems which may conveniently be
placed together here. Most of them, especially those dealing
with OE. ? are purely speculative in character; but those by
Weekley (on Godliri) and Malone (on Harlequin) provide definite
additions to our knowledge, and the semantic articles of Deutsch-
bein (on Road) and of Whitehall (on Bask) are of some interest
and importance,

Willy Krogmann, in Anglia (Apr.), offers as his contribution
to this Festschrift for the late Karl Luick a note on OE. To-
socnung a word rendering Adquisitio in the Durham Ritual
but not hitherto clearly treated by the dictionaries. Krogmann
shows that we must admit the existence of a distinct word
socnung parallel to OHG. souhnung(a) and similar forms in
other dialects.

Herbert Meritt (M.L.N., Feb.) seeks a new point of view in
the explanation of the seemingly corrupt and incomprehensible
OE. gloss Ober eliman. innannorum, which occurs in three
manuscripts in sections dealing with the meaning of words in
the Book of Job. By an elaborate and ingenious process he
arrives, tentatively as he says, at the reconstruction Lim on
obere = 'sticky earth on the shore 5 , and is able to explain
innannorum as a Latin addition, i.e., Maniorum, since Cocytus,
with which the passage is concerned, was a river of the infernal
regions, and Maniorum is a well attested form of the gen. pi.
of Manes.

Hermann Harder (Archiv, Dec.) has, under the heading Ein
ags. Sternbildname, explained the OE. gloss ofHyadas as Raed-
gasram (in the Corpus Gloss, for instance) by the Germanic
name Eadger (in Procopius) and the OE. hrcefn. The explana-
tion seems plausible enough, but would need confirmation of
some kind.

48 PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS

L. R. M. Strachan in N. and Q. (April 6) has compiled a
useful statement from reference-books on the occurrences of
-flced in OE. proper names entitled Flced in Anglo-Saxon Names.
Its use in women's names like Edelflced is evidently quite
common, though the exact original meaning of the element is
still not quite clear.

George Watson, in his article (J.E.G.P., Oct.) headed The
Designation of an Atmospheric Phenomenon, deals with a list
of dialect-words mainly Scottish for 'The undulating or
flickering motion of the air immediately above the earth, as
seen under certain conditions on a hot day 5 (heat haze is the
nearest equivalent in the literary language) . Some of his material
is but little known.

Hope Emily Allen, in her Influence of Superstition on Vocabu-
lary; two related Examples, has collected (P.M.L.A., Dec.) from
the files of the projected Early Modern English Dictionary which
she is helping to edit, a number of illustrations of the effects
on the meaning of Fly and Bug wrought by their superstitious
associations. Although nothing not already known emerges,
it is convenient to have this material assembled in one article,
and there is something to interest the folklorist.

In M.L.R. (Apr.) E. Weekley has a decisive note headed
Etymology of 'Codling which seems to settle the matter both
for the surname and the apple finally. Recalling his own
earlier tentative suggestion and Bardsley's definite opinion that
the Norfolk surname quodling or Oodlin(g) was identical with
that of the Norfolk apple, Weekley has now found evidence that
as early as the Ghronique des Dues de Normandie a certain
legendary apple had been named Pomes de Eichart after Richard
Sans-peur of Normandy . The giving of such names was therefore
an old custom ; and he argues that the fifteenth-century name
Querdling for the Norfolk apple (Promptorium Parvulorum) =
the fourteenth-century Querdelyon named after Richard Coeur-
de-Lion. An Englishman, as Weekley says, might well prefer to
call the apple of the Chronique named after Richard Sans-peur
by the name of his own popular hero-king C&ur-de-Lion.

The early history of our word Harlequin, with much light on
its semantic development, is fully set out by Kemp Malone in

PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS 49

English Studies (Aug.) under the title of Herlekin and Herle-
win. He equates Ordericus Vitalis's legendary Familia Herle-
chini (a name for the Wild Host) with an ultimate OE. Herla
Gyning as far as the proper name is concerned, and accepts
Walter Map's Familia or Phalanges Herlethingi as merely a
variant due to the manuscript confusion of c and t. Peter
of Blois's Herlewini (gen.) later in the twelfth-century Malone
plausibly equates with a hypothetical OE. Herlan wine, i.e. the
wine or followers of King Herla. He conjectures that this King
Herla was originally Woden, and compares the Herelingas of
Widsip. With the later history of Harlequin (the qu is merely
the French for the English k) he is not here concerned. His
etymology is attractive and well argued.

Following the thought of an article in T.L.S. for 2 August
1934, on the development of the meaning of the word Rood,
Max Deutschbein in his Die Bedeutungsentwicklung von Eoad bei
Shakespeare, in Anglia (July), a volume dedicated to Johannes
Hoops on his seventieth birthday, discusses whether the fact that
Shakespeare is the first writer known to have used the word in
the sense of ' highway 5 is accidental, or rather to be attributed
to the dramatist's linguistically creative fancy. He traces the
development of Eoad = 'a place where ships anchor', to the
OE. on ancre ridan, and shows that the passage of the word from
the nautical to the common land sense can only be seen in
Shakespeare's work, from which he quotes all the relevant
examples. He notes how slowly even after Shakespeare had,
as it were, led the way the now ordinary use of the term gained
currency during the seventeenth century, and concludes in
favour of die Shakespearische sprachschopferische Phantasie as
the prime cause of the semantic change. He ends by comparing
the somewhat parallel history of Roadster.

Harold Whitehall throws grave doubts on the universally
accepted etymology of the verb Bask in his The Background of
the verb Bask (P.Q., July). He begins [by calling attention to
the fact that the word is first recorded, in the sense of ' to bathe '
(the only sense before Shakespeare), from Gower according to
the O.E.D., and then only in a passage of Lydgate which clearly
is merely an imitation of Gower. How comes it, he asks, that
a word supposed to originate from ON. ba&ask is first recorded

2762.16 T)

50 PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS

in an area not markedly Scandinavian ? Again, as he says, the
modern post-Shakespearian meanings of the verb seem to have
little connexion with the idea of bathing implied in adaptation
from badask. Whitehall concludes that bask must have had
some origin other than that hitherto taken for granted, though
he is not very clear in putting forward his alternative. His views
should be carefully considered.

Though much has been written this year on the various
aspects of historical grammar of all periods, only one full-
length treatment of the whole subject has appeared. Syntax
has produced less significant work than usual, and dialect-
studies seem to have languished, apart from their very vigorous
forward movements in America.

The book of the year, then, is A. C. Baugh's History of the
English Language, though its intention is rather for the benefit
of the university student than the breaking of new ground. 21
The principal facts concerning Indo-European origins, &c., are
neatly summarized in an initial chapter, and there is another
on 'The 19th century and after' (chiefly from an American
point of view) at the end. Special attention has been paid to
foreign influences, and there is even a chapter on the foreign
elements in OE. Each chapter concludes with a very useful
students' bibliographical list, and there is a fairly good index.
The most successful parts of the book deal with vocabulary,
especially its foreign elements; and as a result, probably of
attempting to compress so much into a single volume, the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries receive relatively meagre
treatment. There is a good deal of ' slick 5 summarizing in the
book ; but all will be grateful for the specimens of each period
of the language which it contains, and for the appendix on
ME. dialects with representative texts excerpted by way of
illustration (but the choice of The Owl and the Nightingale to
represent the South is not happy). The phonetic symbols
employed are to some extent of a popular kind, as appears
clearly in the transcription of Lincoln's famous Gettysburg
speech on p. 401. There is a rough map on p. 447 showing

21 A History of the English Language, by Albert C. Baugh. New York :
D. Appleton Century Co. pp. xiii+509. $3,00.

PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS 51

the dialect-distribution in the United States. Such an attempt
to do everything for the student of our language in a single
volume cannot but suffer from compression and lack of vitality :
but Baugh has made the book as good as a work of this kind
could be, besides adding to our knowledge here and there in his
own special field of vocabulary.

The new 'British 5 edition of Bloomfield's Language 22 is a
reprint of the American revised edition of 1933, with a few
minor changes, chiefly for the benefit of the British reader, but
including the adoption throughout of the phonetic symbols of
the International Association. The book, of course, properly
belongs to general linguistic theory ; but since its illustrations
are mainly from English, and it is intended for the general
public rather than for the advanced student, it was found more
convenient to call attention to it here.

J. Bongartz's little book on the significance of German dialect-
research for the teaching of English is mainly intended for
German students. 2 * Its object is to emphasize the kinship of
English and German and their common culture, to show how
modern methods of dialect-study may be made fruitful in the
study of English by those who will make themselves familiar
with their results for German, and to create a more vivid interest
in Germanic studies generally.

K.-G. Dorow's doctoral dissertation on the eighteenth-century
Scottish schoolmaster and student of language, James Elphin-
ston, 24 though limited in scope, is valuable to the student of
modern Scottish : for Elphinston's Anallysis ov dhe Scottish Dia-
lect, which forms the second volume of his Propriety ascertained
in her picture (1787), is a very rare work, and Dorow has made
a careful description of Scottish in a scientific manner with

22 Language, by Leonard Bloomfield. London: Allen and Unwin. pp.
ix+566. 155.

23 Die deutsche Mundartforschung in ihrer Bedeutungfiir den englischen
Unterricht, by Josef Bongartz. Berlin: Junker und Dunnhaupt. pp. 130.
RM. 5,

24 Die Bedbachtungen des Spmchmeisters James Mphinston uber die
schottische Mundart, by Kurt-Giinter Dorow. Weimar: Wagner Sohn.
pp. viii+77.

52 PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS

sections on phonology, morphology, syntax, and vocabulary
treating everything from an historical standpoint. The book
should also stimulate interest in Elphinston, who has hitherto
generally only been recognized for his better known work on
the grammar and orthography of English.

Two veteran Anglisten, Luick and Max Forster the former,
alas, since dead have made the outstanding contributions of
the year to phonology on problems which are primarily OE.
Karl Luick's article, Zur Palatalisierung (Anglia, July), dis-
cusses the whole question of the palatalizing of the Gmc.
gutturals represented in OE. by c and g. He stresses the inade-
quacy of explanations which assume that the palatalized OE.
c and g which were assibilated finally were later re-gutturalized,
so to speak, under Norse influence in strongly Scandinavian
areas : for examples occur where no Norse influence could have
occurred. He prefers to assume early double types of words
with the k or g either palatalized or not according to the quality
of the neighbouring vowel: thus, for instance, a Gmc. sing.
*<Mk beside a pi. *(Kkos (the one having palatalized k and the
other retaining the guttural) might have been the ultimate
source of our ditch beside dike. The tendency of OE. was to
eliminate the forms with gutturals in favour of the later pala-
talized varieties; Gmc. *brugjo and W. Gmc. *bruggjo giving
OE. brycg, and palatal forms being preferred wherever there
were doublets. But the Norse influence, Luick admits, might
still have accounted in primary Norse areas of influence for a
restoration of the guttural forms which were at the time fast
disappearing. No summary here can do justice to Luick's lucid
and convincing analysis, which is important for ME. as well as
for OE. His work was of the highest quality to the end.

Max Fflrster J s article entitled Zur i-Epenthese im Altenglischen
is in Anglia (July) also and is an important contribution to the
problem it treats of. He returns to the question of the exact
nature of the -oi- in Bede's proper names which he had opened
some years ago (JSng. Stud., Ivi) with his equation of Leeds
to Bede's Loidis. Now, besides demonstrating the truly di-
phthongal nature of the -oi- in OE. names like those in Coin-,
he argues forcibly that the -ui- of early OE. orthography must

PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS 53

also have been a genuine diphthong. The kind of evidence upon
which he relies consists of Celtic loan-words from OE. like the
Welsh ystwyrian which he would derive from OE. styrian, and
examples of OE. words taken over from Celtic like dry from
Irish drui. Perhaps he strains our consciences a little in asking
us to believe that Campaina in Alfred's Orosius for the Latin
Campania is connected with i-Umlaut ; but the general impres-
sion will probably be that Forster has gone a long way towards
establishing that both -oi- and -ui- of early OE. spelling were
truly diphthongal.

Huntington Brown, in Harvard Studies and Notes in Philology
and Literature,, xvii (1935), has a useful article entitled The
Modern Development of Middle-English -ly, -lie in Rhyme. He
points out that, whereas -ly -lie of French origin often rhymes
with developments of ME. -I- in early Modern English, it scarcely
ever does with the modern result of ME. tense e before the
nineteenth century. He gives the proper historical reasons for
this, and draws some fairly obvious inferences.

Of a number of small papers on matters of early Modern
English pronunciation, the most interesting is that of H. C.
Wyld entitled The Significance of -n and -en in Milton's Spell-
ing contributed to the volume of Eng. Stud. (Ixx) in honour
of Luick. He examines and enlarges upon Miss Darbishire's
discussion of Milton's spelling in her introduction to The
Manuscript of Milton's Paradise Lost, Book I. He inclines
to think that certain lines of Milton prove -en as a separate
syllable, while at other times such an ending was not quite
syllabic. Thus, for instance, the word golden in the line

'With gemms & golden lustre rich emblaz'd'

must certainly have been intended as two syllables by Milton,
who may perhaps have pronounced it something like [goldin].
At least something more syllabic than a vocalic n is, Wyld holds,
to be assumed for Milton's intended pronunciation M'such lines.
As Milton was keenly interested in sounds and symbols, the
matter is of importance.

Don Cameron Allen in A Note on 16th-century Vernacular
English (Language, xi), calls attention to the spellings of Junius's

54 PHILOLOGY: GENEEAL WORKS

Nomenclator (1567) : but Sir W. A. Craigie, in his The English of
the 'Nomenclator' in the same periodical (Sept.) shows that the
Nomenclator is full of misprints and errors and that its spellings
cannot, therefore, be relied on very definitely.

William Matthews's Sailors' Pronunciation in the second half
of the Seventeenth Century, in Anglia (Apr.), gives abundant lists
from log-books in the Eecord Office and the British Museum
not yet published, which generally confirm current knowledge
of the spellings of the period, since the officers (or their clerks)
who kept the logs usually tried to write some sort of 'literary 3
English.

Of more significance is Helge Kftkeritz's English Pronuncia-
tion as described in Shorthand systems of the 17th and 18th Cen-
turies (Studia Neophilologica, vii). Here is a full-length picture,
with copious examples and a discussion and scientific analysis.

Arvid Gabrielson has found some interesting notes on seven-
teenth-century pronunciation, too, from a contemporary book
which he has excerpted in his Elisha Coles 3 s ' Syncrisis ' (1675) as
a source of Information on 17th-century English (Eng. Stud.., Ixx).

The work on syntax has not been of great significance : it is
mostly on historical matters, and may be indicated very briefly.
The only complete work on syntax worthy of mention is W.
Schlachter's treatise on the position of the adverb in the Ger-
manic languages. 25 This deals with the adverb in word-order,
limiting the examination to prose texts and classifying the
adverbs according to their syntactic types. Most of the material
is from ON. and OHG. texts, but OE. is also illustrated, though
not fully enough. Gothic is neglected.

Rudolf Hittmair's Zu den Aktionsarten im Mittelenglischen
(Eng. Stud., Ixx) examines W. Hausermann's Studien zu den
Aktionsarten im Fruhmittelenglischen (Vienna, 1930), and in the
course of the discussion seeks to make clear the distinction
between AJctionsart and AspeJct.

A. Dekker examines in some detail and with additional
information of his own B. Trnka's work On the Syntax of the

25 Zur Stellung des Adverbs im Germanischen, by Wolfgang Schlachter.
Leipzig: Mayer u. Miiller. pp. xiv+248. (Palaestra, 200.)

PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS 55

English Verb from Caxton to Dryden (Prague, 1930) in Neo-
philologus (xx).

The syntax, as well as the form, of the Indefinite Article in
early times, is treated in Peter Siisskand's historical survey 26
which covers both OE. and early ME. His bibliography of
editions of texts is antiquated and there seems to be a good deal
that is inaccurate, but some useful information emerges. Only
texts to 1250 are included, and Siisskand prefers to work with
periods rather than dialects as a, means of classification. He
introduces the rather strange term Neuangelsachsisch (p. 57) for
the language of the Trinity Homilies and justifies, he believes,
this practice. He uses the spelling Lagamon for the author of the
Brut consistently.

A number of articles on miscellaneous matters must be now
noticed. They do not admit of very clear classification, and
are therefore listed as far as possible chronologically. None of
them seems to require more than the briefest mention, though
each has its interest.

A. J. Barnouw's How English was taught in Jan van Hout's
Leyden, in English Studies (Feb.), gives an account of Jacob
Walraven's translation of Whetstone's Honourable Eeputation
of a Souldier into Dutch, made in 1586, printed in parallel
Dutch and English columns. This rare book contains a most
instructive appendix consisting of an English manual, again
printed in Dutch and English parallel texts.

Otto Jespersen's A Few Back-formations (Eng. Stud., Ixx)
lists and annotates words of the type retice (from reticent),
intuite and introspect as verbs, compounds like book-hunt, and
common formations from Latin past participles like create.
Occasionally his matter supplements the O.E.D. and its Supple-
ment.

Edwin Berck Dike's Obsolete English Words: some Eecent
Views, in J.E.G.P. (July), gives a useful bibliography of the
subject and tentatively offers suggestions as to the causes
which bring about the disappearance of words.

A. H. Swaen's paper on Malapropism in Eng. Stud. (Ixx)

86 Geschichte des unbestimmten Artikels im Alt- und FruhmittelengU-
schen, by P. Siisskand. Halle: Max Memeyer. pp. x+187.

56 PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS

treats the subject historically and shows Shakespeare's Dogberry
and some of Congreve's characters among its early practi-
tioners.

Max Deutschbein's Der rhythmische Character der neu-
englischen Bibelubersetzung von 1611, in Eng. Stud. (Ixx),
discusses the poetical effects of the rhythmical arrangement
of words by comparing the Authorized Version of the Bible with
Tyndale to whom very much of its rhythm is to be traced
and with the poetry of Wordsworth.

Only one contribution to English historical dialect-study is
to be noted this year. William Matthews's article, entitled The
Lincolnshire Dialect in the 18th Century (N. and Q. 3 Dec. 7),
describes and excerpts with annotations the hitherto unnoticed
British Museum MS. Add. 32640 'Glossaries in the Lincoln-
shire Dialect, 1779-1783'. This consists of four lists of dialect-
words compiled by Sarah Sophia Banks (sister of Sir Joseph
Banks). It is the earliest Lincolnshire material yet found, and
contains a few forms which have not otherwise been recorded.
Matthews gives 'The Scolding Wife, a new song in the Lincoln-
shire dialect ', in Miss Banks*s rough attempt at phonetic tran-
scription, together with a list of 300 words from Lincolnshire
not found in other specifically Lincolnshire dialect-material
though many of them have been recorded from other parts of
the country. Matthews's own notes are not accurate, but the
material he has printed is of value.

Finally, there is the important volume from Michigan Univer-
sity entitled Essays and Studies in English and Comparative
Literature (see p. 42). Besides the report on ME. dialect-
characteristics already discussed, it contains articles almost
exclusively devoted to the history of English. H. Whitehall
contributes Some Fifteenth-century Spellings from the Notting-
ham Records, as well as an ingenious piece of etymologizing
headed Scaitcliffe, a Place-name Derivation. S. B. Meech's An
Early Treatise in English concerning Latin Grammar discusses
a text found in MS. Trinity Coll. Cambridge (0.5.4.) containing .
some interesting West Midland (Shrewsbury) spellings, the
earliest occurrences of a number of Latin grammatical terms

PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS 57

in their English form (often ante-dating the evidence of the
OJ8.D.), and a full English paradigm of the verb to love. It
occasionally, too, shows a word (like unlittleness) not hitherto
recorded at all. A. H. Marckwardt's Origin and Extension of the
Voiceless Preterit and the Past Participle Inflections of the English
Irregular Weak Verb Conjugation is the only attempt at a
thorough examination of the subject that has yet appeared.
He is concerned with weak verbs which add a voiceless stop t
to forms ending in voiced consonants when making the past
tenses ; as, for example, dream dreamed (but actually pronounced
[dremt], feel felt, mean meant, &c. A bibliography concludes this
discourse.

Besides a number of articles on special problems, four full-
length studies of the place-names of counties three in England
and one in Scotland emphasize the growing importance of
this subject ; more and more, historians, philologists, and other
specialists are giving attention to its findings. The twelfth
volume of the Place-name Society's publications embodies the
most impressive work of the year.

P. H. Reaney's volume on Essex 27 follows the usual plan of
its predecessors. But each county has its own peculiar interest
and problems, which should lend individuality to any book
about it ; and Reaney has generally made the most of his
abundant material from this point of view. Besides the usual
historical introduction, there are valuable notes on the evidence
on the Essex dialect furnished by the forms of its place-names,
and everywhere the implications of place-name evidence for
the early social history of the county are attractively brought
out. As with the more recent volumes of the series, field-names
have been studied whenever available. Essex provides a num-
ber of additions to our knowledge of the OE. vocabulary through
the early forms of its place-names, such as celed in AUhorne (not
otherwise recorded as a place-name element), cylu in Kelmdon
Hatch (otherwise known only in glosses), and *dylfen i&Delvyn's
Farm (dylfen = 'broad, deep trench or ditch 5 is probably formed
from the same root as del/an ( to dig'). A list of the chief Essex

27 The Place-names of Essex, by P. H. Reaney. English Place-name
Society, vol. xii. C.ILP. pp. 1+698, 25s.

58 PHILOLOGY: GENEBAL WOEKS

place-name elements is provided, the streets of Colchester are
listed and their names examined, and the exceptionally strong
Norman-French influence is well brought out. One could wish
that more space had been given to the sketch of the early
history of Essex ; and, in particular, Bede's forms of the name
of the first Christian king Sceberht might have been more clearly
explained. The arrangement of the names under their hundreds
is admirably supported by maps provided in a pocket at the
end of the volume.

J. K. Wallenberg's laborious work on Kentish place-names 28
could not be noticed last year, though it was published in 1934.
It follows the general plan of the Place-name Society's volumes,
but has no historical introduction and omits all names of
fields, farms, &c., for which only modern evidence exists. It also
omits the discussion of a number of names recorded from pre-
Conquest charters, since these were fully treated of in Wallen-
berg's separate study of the names of the Kentish charters before
the Norman Conquest (Kentish Place-names: a Topographical
and Etymological Study of the Place-name material in Kentish
Charters dated beforethe Conquest. Uppsala, 1931). Indeed, for a
complete picture of the evidence on Kentish place-names, the
two books should be studied together, as they are comple-
mentary. Over 4,000 names are dealt with and there are signs
of lack of space. A high standard of scholarship is maintained
throughout, and the large proportion of conjectural etymologiz-
ing is probably inevitable. Wallenberg, though writing from
Uppsala, firmly criticizes Zachrisson's extreme efforts to mini-
mize the importance of personal names as place-name elements
and to substitute a host of dubious toponymies. The hundreds
are arranged in the order of Hasted's famous History. A number
of names of places formerly in Kent, but now transferred to the
London administrative area, are most conveniently included.

T. B. F. Eminson's much less ambitious book on the place-
names of part of Lincolnshire follows, 29 in general, the plan of

28 The Place-names of Kent, by J. K. Wallenberg. Uppsala: Appel-
bergs Boktryckeriaktiebolag. pp. xx+626. 1934.

29 The Place and Eiver Names of the West Riding of Lindsey, Lincoln-
shire, by T. B. F, Eminson. Lincoln: Ruddock, pp. 288.

PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS 59

the Place-name Society's volumes, but the writer seems not
quite in touch with the most recent developments of philological
science. There is an interesting introduction on historical lines,
and a bibliography, but no index. Much entirely new informa-
tion comes to light in the course of the book the treatment
of Lincoln being especially full and stimulating.

Sir E. Johnson-Ferguson has written a somewhat summary,
yet interesting account of Dumfriesshire place-names, 30 omitting
those that seemed to him to be of no particular interest', as he
tells us, along with a good many others. There is an index at
the beginning, and a useful introduction on the Norse and
Gaelic elements in the material to be studied together with
some historical information. Johnson-Ferguson has to complain,
as do almost all students of Scottish place-names, of the lack
of material earlier than the fifteenth century ; and his unusually
difficult task is rendered harder still by his lack of specialized
linguistic training. Nevertheless, he has collected some most
valuable material.

R. E. Zachrisson, in Uncompounded Low-German -ing- names
containing Personal Names (Studia Neophilologica, vii), con-
tinues his onslaught on the personal origin of such names from
vol. vi of the same journal (see The Year's Work, xv. 45), and
further seeks a topographic origin for these supposed personal
elements. As Wallenberg shows, in his book on Kentish place-
names noticed above, he may be thought to have carried his
favourite theory in somewhat too sweeping a manner.

Eilert Ekwall shows how the heathen deities whose names
survive in Tuesday and Friday appear as the first elements of
some place-names not hitherto so explained : e.g. the Warwick-
shire Tysoe and the Gloucestershire Fretherne. It is in Eng.
Stud., Ixx, and is headed Some Notes on English Place-names
containing the names of heathen deities.

In Eng. Stud., too, R. E. Zachrisson gives a select list
with commentary of English Place-name Compounds containing
Descriptive Names in the Genitive.

Bruce Dickins's article Latin Additions to Place- and Parish-

80 The Place-names of Dumfriesshire, by Sir Edward Johnson-Fer-
guson. Dumfries: Courier Press, pp. viii+140.

60 PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS

names of England and Wales, in Proceedings of the Leeds Philo-
sophical and Literary Society (iii, July), gives a fuller list (based
on the work of the Place-name Society) than that published in
1910 by Zachrisson in Lunds Universitets ArsJcrift (N.F., Afd.
1, Bd. 7 3 NT. 2).

A new and interesting line of study is suggested by L. W. H.
Payling in his Geology and Place-names in Kesteven, with map,
in Leeds Studies in English and Kindred Languages (No. 4).
He seeks to show the connexion between the geological forma-
tion of the land and the distribution of its early inhabitants
indicated by its place-names.

Louis H. Gray offers a very speculative etymology of the
name Glastonbury, argued with considerable learning, in Specu-
lum (Jan.).

Next may be very briefly mentioned some books of the year
which, though chiefly written for a wide general public, have
some slight contribution to make to English studies. There are
also a few more learned articles in periodicals.

A. Lloyd James's collection of lectures and papers, on
problems that have faced him and the Advisory Committee of
the British Broadcasting Corporation, 31 contains, besides some
clear exposition of practical linguistic problems, a paper entitled
Standards in Speech (read before the Philological Society in
1932). This clearly sets forth the problem as seen by a practis-
ing phonetician.

Maria Schubiger has written a thoughtful little monograph
on intonation in English, 32 starting from the standpoint of De
Saussure and Bally. She discusses the emotional and intellec-
tual functions of intonation, the differentiation of parts of
speech through tone, &c., and illustrates her statements by
some 'tonetic' transcriptions.

Although A. P. Herbert, naturally, often errs through lack
of special linguistic knowledge, there is a good deal of learning
and sound principle in his collection of papers on current

31 The Broadcast Word, by A. Lloyd James. Regan Paul, Trench,
Tnibner. pp. xiii+207. 7*. Qd.

32 The Role of Intonation in Spoken English, by Maria Schubiger.
Cambridge: Heffer. pp. vi+73. 6$.

PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WOEKS 61

weaknesses and vicious tendencies in our writing and speech:
and lie has used the O.E.D. to good purpose. 33

Kostitch and Garrido's English Grammar^ is an attempt to
bring out what is individual in our language by vivid illustration
and comparison with the idiom of various foreign tongues.
The prepositions are treated in considerable detail, and the
novel plan of taking the noun and the article together is adopted
because, in the view of the writers, 'they represent one single
conception, and the article has no function alone 5 .

H. Straumann's study of newspaper headlines 35 is a fall-
length examination of the grammatical structure of what the
author calls 'Headlinese', together with an historical survey of
this recent growth in our language, and a consideration of the
psychological and sociological aspects of the subject. The book
contains much that will be of interest to the semasiologist,
but the material examined is only considered 'synchronically 3
and without regard to English linguistic history. There is
no index.

The grammatical analysis of current English has continued
to attract the interest of foreign scholars, largely under the
influence of Jespersen. There seems also to be developing a
widespread interest in differences between English and Ameri-
can usage. Of these tendencies the remaining articles to be
noticed here are examples.

Herbert Koziol, in JEng. Stud., Ixx, under the title Bemer-
Jcungen zum Gebrauch einiger neuenglischen Zeitformen, considers
some characteristically English verbal forms which show the
marked richness of the language in finely graded distinctions
of time in relation to action. He examines 'I have got' (and
the American 'I got 5 ), the so-called Inclusive and Retrospective
Presents, Expanded Tenses, &c.

R. Volbeda, in his The 'Definite Forms 3 contributed in two
articles to NeopUlologus (xx), examines closely the verbal noun

33 What a Word, by A. P. Herbert. Methuen. pp.286. 65.

34 A Description of English Grammar for Foreign Students, by George
Kostitch and Isabel Garrido. Cambridge: Heffer. pp. x+8L 85.

35 Newspaper Headlines : a Study in Linguistic Method, by Heinrieli
Straumann. Allen and Unwin. pp. 263. 105.

62 PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS

in -ing, and then deals more generally with some characteristic

forms of tense.

G. Kirchner's 'To Feed 9 (tr. v.) construed with various objects
and prepositions, in English Studies (Dec.), enumerates all kinds
of constructions of c to feed 5 , both literary and colloquial, and
distinguishes between some English and American idiomatic
uses of this verb.

A. J. Barnouw has an interesting note in English Studies
(Feb.), on the use of the word Dutch. Owing, it would seem, to
certain American uses of the word as an equivalent for German,
and to some English colloquial practices, the Dutch Govern-
ment recently decided that in all future English correspondence
and publications Netherlands should be substituted as the offi-
cial term, thus striving to bring English into line with the
ordinary Dutch usage of the adj. Nederlands. Barnouw explains
the official Dutch attitude and its historical causes.

It has been found convenient to collect together work of
various kinds on purely American topics which may fall within
the scope of this chapter by reason of its special interest for the
English philologist or the light it throws on the history of
English. General linguistics and the promotion of local dialect-
research seem at the time to be the most fruitful sources under
this head.

Cleanth Brooks, Jnr., has written a scholarly and construc-
tive little book on the dialects of an area which may roughly
be described as Alabama-Georgia. 36 He has set out the phono-
logy of the dialects with the aid of phonetic symbols, using
particularly the work on Negro speech of the author of Uncle
Remus as compared with the recent findings of L. W. Payne in
Ms A Word-list from East Alabama (in Dialect Notes, iii). He
then traces the origin of these sounds, and reaches two conclu-
sions which seem to correct views common in America : first,
that almost everything in the language studied that differs
from English pronunciation is to be regarded as the conserving
by Southern American speakers of characters of English which

36 The Relation of the Alabama-Georgia Dialects to the Provincial
Dialects of Great Britain, by Cleanth Brooks, Jnr. Louisiana State Univ.
Studies XX. pp. xii+91.

PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS 63

their ancestors carried over from England, with the naturally
developing later modifications that is, that Georgian is more
archaic than our own English ; and secondly, that the bulk of
the peculiar characteristics examined are ultimately of South-
western English origin. The inference that much of the immi-
gration into Georgia and Alabama in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries came from Somerset and Devon and Dorset
will be of general interest.

Allen Walker Read's article, Amphi-Atlantic English (English
Studies, Oct.), examines historically the attitude of English-
men and Americans to one another's speech and writing. With
very full illustrations he details the whole history of the growing
consciousness of linguistic differences on the two sides of the
Atlantic, preserving, himself, a very impartial standpoint.

Dialect Notes (vi, pt. x) contains an account of the continued
work now being done in New England and in Virginia towards
a projected American Linguistic Atlas, by Hans Kurath. The
plan seems to be going forward with profit to our knowledge of
earlier English, and it benefits by the experience and scientific
technique worked out already by English and continental dia-
lectologists. Further information on the actual methods of the
workers on the Atlas and their peculiar problems is given by
Bernard Bloch in his Interviewing for the Linguistic Atlas, in
American Speech (Feb.).

A. W. Read provides some matter of interest to English
lexicography in Two New England Word-lists, in Dialect Notes
(vi, pt. x). He prints lists of additions and corrections to Bart-
lett's Dictionary of Americanisms (1848) by a contemporary,
which contain a few scraps of otherwise unrecorded information,
besides fresh illustrations of facts already familiar.

Dialect Notes (vi, pt. x) also contains a further instalment
(pt. viii) of R. H. Thornton's third volume of his American
Glossary. The first two volumes of this useful collection were
published in 1912 ; but the rest has had to wait for publication
till the American Dialect Society took the printing in hand. This
part of the Glossary runs from Nigger in the woodpile to Perique.

American Speech publishes each quarter some phonetic tran-
scriptions of the actual speech of celebrated contemporary

64 PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS

men a practice which, when accurately carried out, provides
records of real value. For example, in American Speech (Feb.),
utterances of Professor John S. Kenyon and Senator William
Borah are recorded. With these regularly appearing transcrip-
tions we have the intriguing and tantalizing assurance that
'The Editors accept the theory of phonemes 5 . Jane Zimmer-
mann is the contributor, under the title Phonetic Transcription.

Two articles on some of the American vowels will interest
phoneticians. Leonard Bloomfield treats of The Stressed Vowels
of American English, in Language (June). Bloomfield deals
with 'Central Western Standard English as spoken in Chicago'.
As his editor claims, this study 'possesses a more general interest
as an example of the technique of analysing phonematically
the structure of a dialect'. The treatment is thoroughly scien-
tific and alive, and there are some thought-provoking remarks
on the current use of certain phonetic symbols. The second
article is by Morris Swadesh, in Language (June) also, and is
entitled The Vowels of Chicago English. Here Swadesh examines
Bloomfield's account of the vowels (in the American revised
edition of his book Language), and points out some minor
inaccuracies in detail.

John T. KJrumpelmann suggests an etymology for the Ameri-
can word Hoodlum from the German hudel+lump, through
some dialectal variety, comparing the Bavarian vulgar expres-
sion hodalump (M.L.N., Feb.).

Kemp Malone has written a stimulating survey of the chief
general linguistic work of 1933-4 entitled Some Linguistic
Studies of 1933 and 1934 in M.L.N., viii (Dec.). His remarks
on dictionary-making made in reviewing the new edition of
Webster are of special value. It is a pity he did not deal with
the work in phonetics in this period.

Priebsch and Collinson's history of the German language
contains matter of some value 37 to the student of the history
of English. Its first part, From Indo-European to Germanic
(pp. 1-82), summarizes the knowledge needed as a preliminary

37 The German Language, by R. Priebsch and W. E. Collinson.
Faber and Faber. pp. xvii-f 434+map. 18s.

PHILOLOGY: GENERAL WORKS 65

to the study of any Gmc. language, though, there are errors
of detail. English (OE. from the eighth century) loan-words
in OHG. and modern Anglicisms of quite recent introduction
into German are very briefly touched upon on pp. 241 and
245 respectively. But the book seems to aim at covering too
much ground in comparatively little space, and hence is very
uneven.

2762.16

Ill

OLD ENGLISH
By DAISY E. MAHTIN CLABKE

SUBSTANTIAL work has been contributed to Old English Studies
this year. The range of treatment is wider than usual ; in addi-
tion to the usual textual editing palaeography, language, litera-
ture, archaeology, philosophy, and even anthropology (in the
guise of the social customs of barbaric peoples) arrest the atten-
tion of a reader of the 1935 publications.

E. E. Wardale in her Old English Literature* has provided
students of Old English with a survey of certain aspects of verse
and prose. Her book is characterized throughout by the sound
use of the work of other scholars together with interesting sug-
gestions arising out of her own scholarship. Her presentation of
subject-matter and her style are marked by lucidity and pre-
cision. Moreover, experience in university teaching has enabled
her to make her book particularly useful for undergraduate
students.

The writer begins by giving such students a very useful
general survey of both verse and prose, though in attempting
such a survey rather more attention might perhaps have been
given to the fact that much Old English literature has been lost.
Much of chapter i is devoted to the origins of Old English heroic
verse, its classification and development, the effect of Christi-
anity on its quality and other influences at work on it. There
are pages on the technique of the verse, though no reference to
Sievers's more recent views. It is a special characteristic of this
book that the writer makes constant use of the relationship
between Old English and Old Saxon literature.

Chapters ii-v (inclusive) treat of poems with 'pagan subjects'.
Miss Wardale adopts the method of paraphrase and some transla-
tion of the texts in order to present her material to her readers.
These chapters deal fully with the early lyric, the epic (Beowulf)

1 Chapters on Old English Literature, by E. E. Wardale. Kegan Paul,
Trench, Trubner. pp. x+310. 8s. 6dL

OLD ENGLISH 67

and the heroic legend, but not so fully with gnomic verse and the
charms. In the former groups the writer gives in some detail
views already published, adding constantly suggestions of her
own which illustrate detail and also reveal views about Old
English poetry in general. It is a pity that she could not give us
more work on the gnomic group, which requires further detailed
study.

Chapters vi and vii describe the so-called Csedmon and Cyne-
wulf poems, presenting these poems with reference to their
main characteristics and problems, their relationship with other
Old English verse and also the way in which they have been
adapted to pagan religious and literary ideas. The same full
treatment is given to the later historical lays, but here the writer
does not seem to have made use of comparatively recent work on
Maldon, work which would almost certainly have modified her
point of view.

Miss Wardale has given much less room to Old English prose.
She concentrates her attention on the standard reached in
prose style and on details in its development, illustrating such
development by especial reference to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
The treatment, moreover, of such subjects as the sources of
the Chronicle, discussion as to its authorship, the personality
and life of Alfred, is brief.

In her Preface the writer says something about the difficulty of
making translations from Old English, viz. of conveying the
manner as well as the thought to the reader. She has adopted a
consistent manner in all her verse translations in order to
accomplish this. Her interpretation of the straightforward
passages is orthodox, though she uses her own punctuation.
In the less straightforward passages she has some interesting
interpretations as, e.g., when in The Wanderer she translates
secga geseldan as a kenning for 'memories'. However, there are
some phrases in both verse and prose where the translation is
not satisfactory. We may compare The Wanderer: wyrmlicum*
fall 'bright with serpent shapes 3 ; annal 893 of the Parker
Chronicle tf as near as he could find space for woodfastness and
waterfastness 5 ; and since at least 1918 it has seemed clear that
the huilpan sweg is the cry of the godwit and not of the curlew.

Miss Wardale has entitled her Bibliography, 'some books

68 OLD ENGLISH

recommended ', but even with this modest title it is not a satis-
factory list. The books selected are not necessarily the best
available. There are curious omissions, as, for example, when
Attenborough's edition of the Anglo-Saxon Laws is mentioned,
but not Miss Robertson's. The book, however, is so useful and
fills such a need that it is with thanks to the writer that this note
must be concluded. Her colleagues and older students of Old
English literature (many of them taught by her) are indebted
for many suggestions and the lucid treatment of complicated
subjects: while undergraduates will find such a survey very
valuable, both as an introduction and as a book of reference,
when Old English verse is already familiar.

To extend the range of consideration of Old English of Miss
Wardale's survey the student is recommended to turn to certain
chapters in R. H. Hodgkin's History of the Anglo-Saxons 2 dealing
with Old English literature and learning in Alfred's reign. In
vol. II, xvii, xviii, and xx he deals with the Alfredian prose docu-
ments primarily from the point of view of the historian, showing
how they reveal the needs and state of the nation and the mental
outlook of the king. Although he does not go into great detail, he
indicates reasons for deciding on the authorship and chronology
of the Alfredian documents and notes the points representing
the personal outlook of the king. He admits that the Anglo-
Saxon Chronicle is hardest to place but indicates without dog-
matizing the probable sources of its records at different dates.
In xx he attempts an estimate of the personality and achieve-
ment of Alfred, showing that mental and spiritual development
may be traced in the books in which he was interested. The
writer avows that Alfred's personality and exploits did not fire
the imagination of the nation as did those of the old 'heroic * age,
but that, as time passed, he became more popular till as the
source of national wisdom and proverb lore he was known as
JEngle Jiirde and Engle derling. HodgHn uses translations from
Old English freely, taking some from those by Sedgefield in
his edition of the Consolation of Philosophy, but most from
R. K. Gordon's volume of translated Old English verse.

2 AHistoryofthe Anglo-Saxons 9 "by'R.'H..'H.odgkm. 2vols. O.U.P. pp.
xxviiandxii+748. 305.

OLD ENGLISH 69

A brief reference must also be given to the history generally,
partly because the writer has 'kept in mind students of the
Old English language who wish to understand the background of
its literature } and partly because we have here no mere political
history but a description of the culture, art, and thought of the
Anglo-Saxon people. Hodgkin makes clear in his Preface that
he has used all the important work available which in any way
bears on his subject, 'the more perfected methods of archaeo-
logy', e new interpretations of constitutional data', philological
examinations of the problems of Old English literature, work on
place-names, on charters, and on the art of the Anglo-Saxons.
Indeed, the volumes are lavishly and finely illustrated: for this
alone students of Old English will be grateful, as also for the
author's full consideration (side by side with his other material)
of the finds and theories of archaeologists. This is an important
feature of his book, though he admits that c Saxon archaeology
has not yet attained to a high degree of scientific security', and
that he can use its dicta often only as an 'interim report'.

This is not the place to attempt any estimate of the historical
achievement of these volumes, though we may mention the
author's aim as an 'attempt to adjust the new views and the old'.
He has given Ms readers a full equipment of maps, genealogical
trees, and a supremely valuable chronological table ranging from
the fourth century to the death of Alfred, and covering items
connected with the Empire, the church, Britain, Celtic lands,
and northern Europe. The two published volumes lead up to
King Alfred: any that may follow will treat of Ms influence and
that of the Danes up to the Conquest. Each item in the narra-
tive is not documented, but in general there are copious refer-
ences to both primary and secondary sources, in the notes at the
end of each volume.

The writer's attitude towards Old English verse and prose is
naturally that of the Mstorian, but literary criticism when it
occurs is in general sound and up to date.

To commemorate the year 1935, the twelve hundredth
anniversary of the death of the Venerable Bede, a set of essays 3

3 Bede, his Life, Times and Writings, edited by A. Hamilton Thomp-
son. OJJ.P. pp. xii+277. 15s.

70 OLD ENGLISH

from modern scholars has been published to give some authorita-
tive estimate of Bede and his work. The Bishop of Durham
himself contributes an Introduction in which, quoting from the
Eibbert Journal, he says: "He has been described as the father
of English History. He was much more than that, he was . . . the
Father of all the Middle Ages.'

Essays are contributed on his life by the Professor of History
at Durham ; on his age by the Eegius Professor of Ecclesiastical
History at Oxford. Most suitably these two essays are supported,
the first by a history of Monkwearmouth and Jarrow together
with some account of the modern buildings at both sites (con-
tributed by Sir Charles Peers) ; and the second by a full account
of Northumbrian Monasticism written with all the erudition
one has come to associate with Hamilton Thompson's work.
Further essays are included, on Bede as historian (from the Pro-
fessor of Medieval and Modern History at Bonn University) ; as
theologian (from the Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical History
in the University of Oxford) and as hagiographer (from the
Reader in English at Durham University).

The late Provost of Eton College in his palaeographical essay
confines his attention almost entirely to the manuscripts of the
Historia Ucclesiastica, reminding us that more than 130 manu-
scripts, dating over 700 years and preserved in at least forty
libraries, do not complete the list for this work alone. Besides
giving some account of the Latin versions of the Historia Ecclesia-
stica, M. R. James refers to the Old English version of the same
work. There are five manuscripts extant dating from the tenth
and eleventh centuries. The writer's concluding paragraphs
deal with the question of the autographs of Bede and state that
apart from the traditional ascription of work to him there is
little evidence in their favour. An account of Bede's library by
the Professor of History in Cornell University completes the
tally of the essays.

For the student of Old English it is primarily Bede's intimate
association with the art and culture of Northumbria in the
seventh and eighth centuries that makes Ms work important.
His Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum, the Historia Abba-
turn, and the two lives of St. Cuthbert (one in hexameters) are
the main source of the information we have for this period in

OLD ENGLISH 71

English Mstory. The folly documented and detailed treatment
of Bede's life and works by C. E. Whiting is characteristic of
the other essays also, while those estimating him as historian,
theologian, and hagiographer are of equal value to the student
in Old English, who is referred to them for details.

Bede's extant writing in Old English is slight. In addition,
however, to extant works, we know he was translating St.
John's Gospel into Old English while he was dying. Whiting,
while discussing Latin works sometimes ascribed to Bede, would
include a poem De Die Judicii (which later appeared in Old
English as Be Domes Daege), and referring to the De Obitu Baedae
says, when dying 'he quoted five Old English lines on the
departure of the soul from the body'. A small point of criticism
there are some errors in the indexing which should be cor-
rected at the earliest opportunity.

A. C. Bartlett in The Larger Rhetorical Patterns in Anglo-
Saxon Poetry 4 ' deals with 'the rhetorically developed style'
which she wishes to describe as the peculiar property of Anglo-
Saxon poetry in its most finished form. In her Foreword she
defines the scope of her work, viz. the long rhetorical unit in
Anglo-Saxon poetry with its definite and intentional structural
pattern. She adds later that she is not concerned 'with the route

by which such patterns and devices came into Anglo-Saxon I

shall not in this book attempt to establish any relationship
between Anglo-Saxon rhetoric and Old Icelandic on the one
hand or between Anglo-Saxon rhetoric and Latin on the other.'
In four chapters, therefore, she gives examples and comments
on 'the patterns of the Anglo-Saxon rhetorical verse paragraph',
calling each chapter by a descriptive name, e.g., 'Envelope',
'Parallel', 'Incremental', 'Rhythmical'. The name 'Envelope'
is taken from W. M. Hart's Ballad and Epic ('a parallelism . . .
something like the 'envelope figure' of the Psalms); 'Parallel'
and 'Rhythmical' are self-explanatory. 'Incremental' signifies
a series of steps in narrative style cumulative in force (cp. Beow.,
7026-736a).

4 The Larger Rhetorical Patterns in Anglo-Saxon Poetry, by Adeline
Courtney Bartlett. Columbia Univ. Press and O.U.P. pp. viii+130.
Us. 6d.

72 OLD ENGLISH

Chapter vi examines, under the title 'Decorative Inset', the
appearance in poetic style of gnomic, homiletic, elegiac, lyrical,
runic, descriptive and narrative elements ; while a further chap-
ter, 'Conventional Device', deals with the technique of intro-
ductory and concluding formulae and also with the character-
istics of direct speech.

The work done in these chapters is useful. The writer's
examples are often well chosen though some could be improved
by the addition of a longer comment, to make clear that the
device is not, as the writer herself puts it, c a mere repetition of
a phrase or phrases within the space often, twenty or a hundred
lines ' . She probably realizes herself the very slight treatment she
has given to her 'Rhythmical Pattern' by dealing only with the
expanded line in relationship to verse paragraph. In her last
chapter the writer suggests some conclusions, viz. (1) the form
(of a verse paragraph) often seems to be chosen for the sake
of ornament, not for the sake of the meaning ; (2) the cumu-
lative effect of all these patterns is to emphasize the non-
narrative feeling of Anglo-Saxon epic (one might cite Klaeber's
much more clearly expressed phrase 'mere objective narration
is not the chief aim ' of the Old English poet), and (3) the inter-
pretation of Anglo-Saxon verse as a poetic tapestry helps in the
appreciation of the poetic style.

Up to this point, within the very limited scope indicated in
her Foreword, some useful work has been done, but here the
writer apparently changes her mind and attempts in the few
remaining pages of her book to put forward a view about the
influences which have been at work on Anglo-Saxon poetic
style. Her case for Latin influence is based on subjective,
negative arguments, references to the views of other critics and
some reproachful questions in colloquial language, and to these
we may add some half a dozen references, among the examples
cited in earlier chapters, to possible sources of influence.

The subject on which she here embarks is a highly controver-
sial one only to be elucidated by considering a much wider
range of example (Germanic and classical) than the writer has
attempted. Miss Bartlett, for example, has not read Miss Phill-
potts's convincing article on the possible Norse influence on the
style of Maiden, a clear example of the limited scope of her

OLD ENGLISH 73

study. There is room for work on both classes of subject, the nar-
rower and the wider: it is a pity that the writer did not make
up her mind to adhere to either the one or the other.

E. Gii-van's Beowulf and the Seventh Century** represents three
lectures given at University College, London, and printed
almost identically as delivered. Lecture I is devoted to the
language of the poem. The writer's main theme is that the
vocabulary of Old English poetry is essentially that of everyday
(literary) use and that the diction of Beowulf (apart from a
handful of poetic archaisms) is what we meet elsewhere in Old
English verse. This latter statement he modifies, however, by
noting the numbers and types of compounds in Beowulf, and
asks whether these may be due to the poem belonging to an
earlier stage of the language.

Girvan next takes up dialect forms and forms that are
chronologically discrepant. There are, he says, extremely few
which are essential to verse and metre. 'I do not think there is
any example of an essential form which can be maintained as
really late. 3 Those who allocate the poem to the Northumbrian
dialect and to pre-eighth century must, however, attribute
the presence of back mutation of a in the poem to copyists.
When dealing with such linguistic features as contraction,
apocope and syncope and syntax, he notes that the oldest
changes noted belong to the early seventh century, but in view
of Christian references these would have to be ascribed to after
650.

Girvan's third lecture deals with Folk-tale and History. He
emphasizes the high degree of accuracy in the accounts 'of
Hygelac's death and suggests that this is significant of what
we may expect from the poem historically. In his discussion of
anomalies in the poem he seems to be in general agreement with
the view of Axel Olrik that 'the poet knew Geat history but
only Danish heroic tradition as preserved in poetry'. We ought
to accept, therefore, as historic fact that Beowulf was the
nephew of Hygelac and ultimately king of the Geats. For his
detailed elaboration of this the reader is referred to the original:

5 Beowulf and the Seventh Century, by Ritchie Girvan. Methuen.
pp. viii-h86. 3s. Qd.

74 OLD ENGLISH

for even if three of the main arguments brought forward by
protagonists of the opposing view can be countered, yet Girvan's
own argument needs further elaboration and example.

We have here three lectures putting forward a theory about
Beowulf and the seventh century. In its written form it is not
adequate. Indeed its writer says, 'it was inevitable that con-
clusions should be stated without setting forth the evidence on
which they are based'. The subject-matter to be examined in
any such theorizing is too wide, complex, and controversial to be
dealt with effectively under the conditions which have governed
the production of Girvan's book. His suggestions are often
interesting ; their presentation in their present form is not con-
vincing. Elaboration in a series of articles would have drawn
attention to these interesting views more effectively.

W. J. Sedgefield 6 in his first edition of the Beowulf, twenty-
five years ago, limited the scope of treatment in Ms Intro-
duction to an outline of the more important facts established
and theories hazarded; his notes to what was essential for
textual understanding, and his treatment of the text to what
would be considered essentially helpful to students. His new
edition, though revised and partly rewritten, has, however,
substantially the same range of treatment with special em-
phasis laid on the compilation of the text of the poem and its
more exact interpretation. It does not compete with an edition
like that of Klaeber's.

The composition of the volume is much what it was in 1910
with the addition of an Appendix containing a resume of the
story of Grettir Asmundarson, As one would expect, the brief
selected Bibliography is very much changed as Sedgefield's
first edition dates before the publication of all the outstand-
ing work on Beowulf problems which have appeared since
the first decade of the century. All this comparatively recent
work on the poem has led to alterations in the Introduction,
especially to a rearrangement and expansion of the sections
on Germanic History and Legend, the Folk-tale Elements and
unity of authorship. The writer now accepts Panzer's folk-tale

6 Beowulf, ed. by W. J. Sedgefield. (3rd ed.) Manchester Univ. Press,
pp. xxxv+250. 10s. 6d.

OLD ENGLISH 75

theories and abandons the idea that the Beowulf-Grendel story
was ultimately derived from myth. He endorses Brandl's
dictum in favour of unity of authorship, explaining discrep-
ancies in the poem by deciding that the poet wavered between
the style of the epic and that of the minstrel's lay.

' Beowulf ^ looks like an experiment in a new genre ... the result
is not an epic which postulates an advanced culture but a romance
of a quite original type. The digressions occupying over 400 lines
of our poem are like windows from which we get glimpses of a
vast body of saga material . . . once enshrined in hero-lays sung
by bards.'

Many who may well endorse Sedgefield's remarks about a new
genre of poetry will disagree with his use of the term 'romance'
for Beowulf.

In the conclusions enumerated as probable at the end of his
Introduction the writer emphasizes that the poem is a unit,
original and indigenous to the Anglo-Saxons ; that its poet was
refined in mind, a cleric who in some way became familiar with
lays treating of Scandinavian and other Germanic heroes ; that
the original text was in Anglian and that it was copied into
West-Saxon by an educated man.

In his Preface to his new edition Sedgefield states that he has
once again scrutinized the Beowulf manuscript, compared it
with the phototypes made by Zupitza, and has had folio 179
examined by Dr. Robin Flower with the help of the ultra-
violet lamp. The result of this new inspection has led to modi-
fication in the text of eight lines of folio 179: these may be
compared with Klaeber's readings which are based on the notes
of Chambers as well as on those of Zupitza. In lines 2210-30,
Sedgefield claims to have made out one or two readings differ-
ently from these scholars, and although unable to throw any
light on interpretation, he disagrees with Zupitza's comment on
the hopelessly corrupt hemistich 2226*.

With regard to textual emendation, in addition to those
accepted generally by editors, his view is that it is better ('for
the student ') to admit emendations which substitute sense for
nonsense, under certain conditions. We may compare Ms
emendation of manuscript reading j icge in L 1107 to ond(l)iege
(a nonce word) meaning 'stored'. If we take some twelve

76 OLD ENGLISH

readings which differ from readings in the 1910 edition, we find
the editor has emended the manuscript much more frequently.
He does not always give the reason for the change and on some
occasions at any rate his notes are not full enough to be con-
vincing. He has made a thorough analysis of the metre of the
poem and used this widely as a help in textual criticism (cp.
Appendix I).

In his selections from the Parker text of the Chronicle, 7 A. H.
Smith adds a sixth volume to the Old English texts published by
Methuen. His aim is to present a reliable text and to consider
some of the problems involved in a study of the Chronicle,
within the scope of his edition. Details in the presentation of the
text agree in general with those already published in this series,
but here the editor is especially indebted to Plummer's, the
standard text, though he indicates that he has found errors in
Plummer's readings. His list of these, however, requires further
explanation in order to show what is the final reading of the
text. This need for amplification is also noticeable in the com-
ments on meaning, and the references printed below the text,
particularly so because again and again when Smith has written
at greater length the advantage to the student is obvious (con-
trast, e.g., p. 36 27 with p. 32 17 ). The identity of the place-names
is of course much more exact than that of older editions as
much work has been done on this subject of recent years by
A. H. Smith himself as well as by others. A map would have
been a most useful addition. The text is completed by the usual
Glossary and select Bibliography. Even if not claiming to be
complete the latter should contain Liebermarm's article in
Archiv, civ (1900).

The Introduction falls into three sections, Versions and
Origins of the Chronicle; Chronology; and the language of the
Parker manuscript. Under the first, the editor gives a brief
orthodox account of the manuscripts but refers also to a
sixteenth-century transcript of the badly burnt manuscript,
Cotton Otho B. xi, only recently acquired by the British Museum.
This manuscript B.M. Add. 43703 was briefly described by Dr.

7 The Parker Chronicle (832-900), ed. by A. H. Smith. Methuen.
pp. viii+72. 2s.

OLD ENGLISH 77

Robin Flower in the British Museum Quarterly, viii. In Ms
opinion it is most probable that Lambard's copy of the same
manuscript, mentioned by Plummer (though not seen by him),
was made from NowelTs transcript (mentioned above), and it is
good news that such an important manuscript is to be described
in detail by Flower when he edits an unknown Old English
alliterative poem from the same manuscript, this year. In this
section, too, the date of the original Chronicle is discussed with
the comment: c it is almost impossible to reconstruct the
character of the original 5 . Moreover, the editor, unlike Plummer
(in 1892) and Hodgkin (in 1935), is not convinced that Alfred
himself wrote the Chronicle. He brings forward no new evidence
in support of his position but differs in his interpretation of that
already available. There is a useful section on Chronology
based on M. L. R. Beaven's work and finally an account of the
orthography and style of the Parker manuscript.

R. Willard in his two Old English Apocrypha 8 presents two
studies arising from his work on the Old English homily, The
Apocryphon of the Seven Heavens and The Three Utterances.
The former is to be found in manuscript C.C.C.C. 41, in the
margins of an Old English translation of Bede's Ecclesiastical
History, and Willard prints what he calls parts V (the seven
heavens enumerated), VI (the transit of the soul), and VII
(a description of hell), expanding abbreviations, punctuating,
and capitalizing, and emending (with footnotes which contain
the manuscript readings). The writer next discusses difficulties
of interpretation by reference to other known versions of this
theme, considering in some detail the technical names and
epithets ascribed to the seven heavens, the doors of the heavens,
the guardian angels, the cardinal virtues, and the transit of the
soul. The descent of the soul through the twelve circles of hell
(part VII) is also described in another Old English homily (un-
published but extant in manuscripts Cotton Faustina A. ix
Horn, iv (Wanley), from which Willard quotes, and C.C.C.C.
302 Horn, x (Wanley)). The Old English versions have certain

8 Two Apocrypha in Old English Homttiea, by Rudolph Willard.
(Beitrage zur englischen Philologie, xxx.) Leipzig : Tauchmtz. pp. viii-f
149. BM. 8.

78 OLD ENGLISH

features in common 3 i.e. when they speak of the devil as lying
on his back bound with fiery chains. On p. 28 the writer
gives an outline of the cursus of the soul, and on p. 30 some
account of the possible relationship of the various accounts to
one another.

The latter and larger half of the book deals with The Three
Utterances of the Soul, presenting the hitherto unpublished texts
of three Old English homilies dealing with this subject, manu-
scripts, Hatton 114 ; Cotton Faustina A. ix ; and Junius 85 and
86 together with the text of the Latin homily from manuscript
Latin 2628 of the Bibliotheque Nationale, printed by Louise
Dudley in The Egyptian Elements in the Legend of the Body and
Soul and the Old Irish Story called The Two Deaths, edited by
C. Marstrander in Eriu (1911). The two last are given as
translated by their respective editors. In the chapter called
The Setting the writer gives careful consideration to these dif-
ferent versions of the theme and shows that their characteristics
point to a connexion with the so-called Vision of Paul, a vision
both popular and widely known.

The remaining chapters examine the characteristics of the
narrative which show variation in the different versions. The
writer deals for example with 'Angels of Death 3 , Suscitate
animam leniter and the Order of Parts, The Escort and Chant,
and the Utterances themselves. In his Preface he indicates that
in examining such a subject he has had to go very far afield.
The apocryphal material which he uses is only familiar to a
limited number of students, but his treatment impresses one as
thorough and his assessment as well judged.

Although not an Old English text, we must draw attention to
W. Jaager's edition of Bede's Latin metrical life of St. Cuthbert 9
which appears this year with a full introduction and critical
text.

Finally we would add two preliminary notes, one on the
edition of Das altenglische Traumgesicht vom Kreuz^ edited by

9 Bedas metrische Vita Sancti Cuthberti, by Werner Jaager. (Palaestra,
198.) Leipzig: Mayer and Muller. pp. vi+136. RM*9.

10 Das altenglische Traumgesicht vom Kreuz, by Hans Biitow. (Anglist.
Forsch. 78.) Heidelberg: Winter, pp. 8 -{-185. KM. 10.

OLD ENGLISH 79

Hans Biitow, and the other, Zur Vorgeschichte de$ 'Beowulf, 11 by
W. A. Berendsohn. We hope to make further comments on
both these books next year.

Our next section deals with articles written on the subject of
Beowulf.

Gustav Hiibener in R.E.8. (April) gives readers in a short
article on Beowulf and Germanic Exorcism the gist of the views
he has been expressing and developing during past years. It is
his object to insist upon the relationship between such a plot as
that of the Beowulf and the old custom of exorcism. To quote:
'we hope that our idea of "heroic exorcism" is and will be the
key to the chief treasure vault of the saga tradition.'

Two aspects at any rate of this unorthodox point of view, it
seems to us, justify students of Old English literature in giving
a sympathetic consideration to Htibener's article here and to
his writings elsewhere (cp. especially, England und die Gesit-
tungsgrundlage der europdischen Fruhgeschichte, 1930). First, the
writer, even while drawing attention consistently to the general
connexion between the extant literary form of the Germanic
saga and exorcistic customs, boldly declares that much work
remains to be done on detail. Secondly it seems clear, to use a
concrete analogy, that with Hiibener as with other scholars the
Beowulf is regarded as containing within itself layers of culture,
superimposed one on the other even as in San Clemente in Rome
one church is situated on top of its fellow, each representing a
period of development in the religious faith of mankind. The
acceptance of Hiibener's suggestion may well enrich the general
content of Beowulf without necessarily disproving views held
of other scholars.

In outline, Hiibener's article maintains first that the purely
literary explanation of the similarity between the great 'sagas'
of Germanic tradition is inadequate. Their unique names,
historical framework, and their tone are opposed to their being
considered merely as products of the imagination. If much in
them, however, is due to the literary imagination, why is it that

11 Zur Vorgeschichte des 'Beowulf, by W. A. Berendsohn. Kopenhagen :
Levin and Muoksgaard. pp.302. 15 kr.

80 OLD ENGLISH

man's imagination is so preoccupied with this special form of
subject, viz. the heroic fight against demons like Grendel or
Glamr ? Hubener would explain it by pointing to a real existent
early European custom, viz. the expulsion of obsessions, a
custom believed in by our ancestors as by other races in the
world.

The rest of the article gathers together under six different
headings certain facts and considerations. Belief in and prac-
tice of exorcism is found throughout the world with different
attendant characteristics, and closer examination of the great
Germanic sagas shows that some of these characteristics are
present in them. As Germanic civilization struggled out of its
predominantly magic past and the characteristic features of the
Heroic Age society appeared, it was natural that the central
figure of the society, the most courageous leader, should have to
fight that which had filled earlier society with fear, viz. the
attack by demons. Hubener has found many examples in
modern Europe of the practice of exorcism. One may add that
they are not wholly lacking in Britain.

The last two sections of the article from their very nature are
the most incomplete. The writer indicates that much work
needs to be done in order to show how far literary imagination
has played a part in the structure of these sagas, but he insists
that only by paying attention to the underlying connexion with
exorcism will the problem of the literary embellishment of the
sagas be solved. He indicates that some of them clearly seem
to be nearer to the magic past than others. In Ms last section
he considers a few examples. Hubener has set himself a difficult
task in trying to give in a brief article a wide-reaching theory like
this, though English readers must be obliged to him for the
opportunity of having had attention drawn to it in this way.

In Archiv (June) Hope Traver writes on Beowulf 648-649
once more. She ventures to put forward a new interpretation of
the Beowulf textual difficulty because of the difference of
opinions on it expressed by well-known scholars. Many of these
emend 1. 648: others write opffe (1. 649) as op Se ( = 'until').
The former translate 'after they could no longer see', &c. ;
the latter (cf. Klaeber) 'from the time that they could see the

OLD ENGLISH 81

light of the sun, until night came'. Miss Traver would make
no alteration in the manuscript reading and would translate
(following up ' for he knew that a fight was purposed for the foe
in the high hall 5 ), 'afterwards they might either see the sunlight
or night darkening over all, shadowhelmed shapes would have
come striding on, black under welkin *.

She supports her proposal by referring to the technical mean-
ing of ping gehegan and from the use of scridan in Beowulf. She
also examines the general style of the poem and notes that
Beowulf himself (11. 280-5) suggests to the coast-guard alterna-
tive results which might arise from his attack on GrendeL Miss
Traver elaborates her interpretation with some success, sug-
gesting by consideration of the general context that the verse
is heightened by this interpretation of the narrative. The weak-
ness in her interpretation seems to lie in the syntactical con-
nexion of 11. 649 and 650.

In a letter to the T.L.S. (Nov. 9), headed Beowulf s Fight with
Gfrendel, Constance Davies gives an account of the attacks made
by a monster, Y Gwr Blewog (i.e. Hairy Man) on a farm-house
on Bwlch Mwlchan in which many details resemble those of the
stories dealing with trolls in Beowulf and Orettissaga. This Welsh
legend handed down orally was repeated recently to the writer.
On 23 November, referring to the above letter, A. Mackenzie
suggests, with illustrations, that it is in Scotland rather than in
Wales that the Grendel story will find its closest analogies.

On 14 December Katherine M. Buck writes that the anti-
quary, Edward Llwyd, in 1695 noted the legend of Y Gwr Ble-
wog and she gives parallels to and traces of this story in several
literatures. We may remind readers that it was in Wales that
Sir Gawain met and fought with the woodwose, a monster of
troll stock and well described as a e gigantic man covered all over
with red hair'.

In Eng. Stud. (Jan.) A. E. Du Bois writes on Beowulf 1107 and
2577: Hoards, Swords and Shields, suggesting meanings for the
two adjectives icge, incge. He wishes to translate both words by
* barbarous, heathen' with the implication also * ancient and
marvellous ' : he connects them both with the god Ing. By an

2762.16 p

82 OLD ENGLISH

argument very much restricted he suggests first that a meaning
can be arrived at by reference to such adjectives as eotenisc
and entisc, which are commonly used in the description of
swords and hoards. This by no means certain proposition is
followed by further discussion of which the author himself says :
"beyond probability the evidence is scant and within probability
the theory is perhaps too pat ... to be trusted 3 . The present
reviewer refers the reader to the article itself for further informa-
tion.

In Eng. Stud. (April), published in honour of the seventieth
birthday of Karl Luick, W. Krogmann writes on Altengl. antid
und seine Sippe. The word antid (Beowulf, 219) has already
been examined both from the point of view of its linguistic
history and the possible length of Beowulf's voyage to HroSgar J s
capital. In almost all respects Krogmann supports Sievers's
linguistic analysis of the passage. It is with the exact meaning
of antid that he is concerned: he would translate the whole
phrase, 'am anderen Tage nach der vorgesehenen Zeit'.

By reference to the use of analogous words in Old English,
Old Norse, and Old Saxon Krogmann extends the range of
inquiry made by Sievers. The first element in antid, he con-
tends, has the significance 'bestimmt 3 or 'festgesetzt 5 . As the
title indicates, the writer does not consider the question from the
point of view of the possible length of Beowulf's voyage.

In the same number of Eng. Stud. Kemp Malone contributes
some reflections on the name of Healfdene in Beowulf. Healf-
dene was probably illegitimate from the form of his name and
from Scandinavian records. In Beowulf he is given a divine
parent, i.e. Beowulf who corresponds to the Beow of the West
Saxon genealogies, a supernatural personage. However, from
Scandinavian sources his father seems to have been a certain
Harold. The name (in the genitive plural) is used in the Finn
episode, 1069, as a family or tribal name. Hnsef is said to be
HcdeS Healf-Dena: elsewhere in the story he and his men are
identified with the Danes. Despite this, in no account of the
Danish royal family do Hnsef or his father, H5c, play a part as
king or prince : yet there is clearly a connexion. Malone sug-
gests that this connexion is to be found in the fact that Hnaef

OLD ENGLISH 83

(a contemporary of Hengest and Horsa) would belong to the
beginning of the fifth century and therefore far from being a
descendant of Healfdene might be his grandfather.

In his Kommentar zum Beowulf J. Hoops, writing on 1. 457,
contented himself with giving the usual emendations for this
line and stating that Klaeber J s interpretation appeared the best,
viz. because of deeds done '. But he added that no emendation
or interpretation was wholly satisfactory. In the April number of
Eng. Stud, he considers Beowulf 457 f.: For were fyhtum
and for drstafum further, with full references to all suggestions
hitherto made, and indicates that not only does the manu-
script reading fere fyhtum need an emendation which shall
restore the alliteration but one that shall elucidate the form
fere. Moreover, the epithet chosen must offer a meaning parallel
to the phrase in the following line, viz. for arstafum. Hoops
considers that Grundtvig's emendation to for were-fyhtum satis-
fies one of these needs and he would translate for the purpose of
defensive fighting ' (i.e. referring not to the past but to the future
fight against Grendel) . Moreover, the ar- of arstafas may be taken
to mean 'help' as in the Biddies. Hoops compares 1. 382, Bine
halig God for arstafum us asende . . . wiS Grendks gryre. Hence
the two epithets may be considered as parallel in meaning.

In M.L.N. (Feb.) A. E. Du Bois translates Beowulf 489-490,
indicating by elaboration the exact meaning of this disputed
passage: 'But sit down and eat (the hall is yours, as you have
requested), and in the hall (before the fight, however doubtful
its outcome), reckon on victory for men (over Grendel who can
hardly be called a man) as you are inclined to do (though I
know what happened to my Danes).'

In the same number F. G. Cassidy puts forward A Suggested
Eepunctuation of a Passage in Beowulf (7456-749), different from
that usually accepted. He would put a semicolon after hige-
pihtigne and take rinc as nominative case. At the word rinc the
poet would begin to talk of Beowulf's response to the fiend's
grappling. One additional point might be suggested, viz. the
insertion of an I in inwitpancum. This word would then become
inwitpanclum and would naturally refer to Grendel.

84 OLD ENGLISH

In J.E.G.P. (Jan.) N. E. Eliason contributes a note on the
Wulfhlid in Beowulf 1358 in which he suggests that instead of
the word conveying a picture of a remote spot, the retreat of
wolves, it conjures up 'a cliff where wolves lurked feeding upon
animal and human carcases'.

E. V, Gordon in M ed. Mv. (Oct.) writes an article on Wealhpeow
and related names. In this he elaborates the view that the name of
HroSgar's queen WealhSeow means 'chosen servant 3 and that
it is an old one, not a descriptive one coined by the poet. The
Old English form has its counterpart in the Old Norse mascu-
line name Valpjofr, the first element of which by reference to
Schonfield's collection of old proper names can mean 'chosen,
beloved' as well as 'foreign 3 . As foipjofr, it has been accepted
for some sixty years now, when it is the second element in a
proper name, as a doublet of ther ( = servant).

Names, however, in which this element appears are given in
early times to nobly-born folk, and further scrutiny of their
etymology shows that the bearers in many cases would seem to
be either in the service of a god or devoted to some ideal.
Finally the writer suggests that the unusual gender of Wealhpeow
may be elucidated by reference to O.H.G. names of the same
type, which can be either masculine or feminine gender and
which types may have become specialized as masculine gender
in Old Norse.

Several articles dealing with subjects outside Beowulf are
contributed in Eng. Stud. (Jan.). W. Horn gives a carefully
worked out note on the meaning of Old English Hwcepere. He
indicates that words suggesting contrast like New German dock
and dennoch ; Latin sed and autem ; Old English ac, peak hwcepere,
New English nevertheless, notwithstanding, despite of all, show
evolving forms which in course of time have either been streng-
thened in significance or have been ousted.

By careful comparison with the cognate OHG. form and
examples from the different periods of English, Horn shows that
the probabilities are that Old English hwcepere originally was
part of a phrase peahpy $ehwcepere, although at a glance it must
first be linked with the interrogative pronoun, hwceper. Out of

OLD ENGLISH 85

this arises the meaning (common in OE.) "nevertheless 3 (liter-
ally, 'in any case'). An interesting sample of the way in which
linguistic forms and meanings develop.

In the same number Max Forster contributes an article on
Altenglisck stor, ein altirisches Lehnwort. He draws attention to
the difficulty of ascribing the Old English form, with its nomina-
tive stor, to Latin storax as, for example, when it is compared with
Old English persoc (persic) from Latin persicum (peach). This
doubt about the origin of stor is supported by Pogatscher.
F5rster next indicates the widespread influence of Irish on the
Old English language, especially on the vocabulary of church
and monastic practice. He cites a number of Irish loans
already accepted as such and adds two more recently suggested
in Alfred's cestel and .Mfric's cine. Finally he shows on what
etymological grounds he gives Old English stor an immediate
Irish origin. The article, though brief, contains much useful
information about words, a feature one begins to look for always
in Fdrster's work.

Under the section Miszetten in Eng* Stud. (Aug.) W. Krog-
mann contributes two notes. In the first he examines the
etymology of the Ae. defu (not defe as in Bosworth-Toller, Clark
HaH, 1931, and Holthausen 1934), In the second note he joins
issue with F. Holthausen who had maintained that the element
Ae. georman-, geormen- (in the name of the flower Malva erratica)
could not be a participle, as probably its oldest form would be
geormcen-.

In the same number A. S. C. Boss writes notes on The Runic
Stones at Holy Island, following up the discussion by C. R. Peers
in Archaeologia, xxiv (1925). For the detailed information con-
tained in his article readers are referred to the original.

In Archiv (June) Bruce Dickins, under Kleinere Mitteilungen,
contributes a brief note on the runic inscriptions to be found on
rings described in the British Museum Guide to Anglo-Saxon
Antiquities. While agreeing that the inscriptions are magical he
would interpret by reference to an Old English charm for blood
stanching.

In the same section, in Ae. tintreg(a)<*tind-treg(a), F. Mezger
discusses the derivation of this word, found in both Alfred and

86 OLD ENGLISH

JDlfric's writings. He suggests that it possibly comes from *tind-
treg(a). From a number of compounds containing trega (= mis-
fortune) he suggests that the element tind (with other Germanic
cognate dialect forms) is probably to be elucidated by reference
to OE. tinnan (to burn). Holthausen cites the word in his
recent Worterbuch only to query its etymology: both writers
give the meaning 'Qual, Pein'.

Turning now to subjects other than Beouwlf, in other periodi-
cals, we note that in Archiv (March) Fr, Klaeber gives some
textual Bemerkungen zu altenglischen Dichtungen. Section 1
deals with the poem printed in Grein-Wtilker, ii, p. 217, called
Gebet, and in Chapters on the Exeter Book referred to by R. W.
Chambers as A Prayer. The text is unsatisfactory even after
the attempts to elucidate it made recently by Chambers and
Flower Klaeber suggests readings and interpretations for 11. 4,
21, 47, 70, 84, 86, 90, 94, 97, 107, 115, 118. He uses the reading
of the recently published facsimile of the Exeter Book, for the
first line, making the first three lines read :

Age mec se celmihta God
helpe min se halga DryJiten
pu gesceope heofon and eorpan.

Similarly Klaeber discusses the words uhtceare and on uhtan in
Klage der Frau, 11. 7 and 35 ; the clause, 8 a ic meferan gewatfol-
ga3 secan in 1. 9 (supporting N. Kershaw's elucidation by refer-
ence to Bede 420, 12), and finally discusses the difficulties
present in 11. 17-21, and 42 ff. His last note deals with Deor.
In it he accepts W. W. Lawrence's translation of the refrain,
"old troubles have passed and present ones may 3 , and sees the
extant poem as a unit (even as he does both Wanderer and Sea-
farer). He argues that if we admit a later Christian interpola-
tion, then we must also admit that the interpolator has done his
work perfectly. For details readers are referred to the notes
themselves, which are as usual characterized by skilful citation
and understanding of Old English syntax.

N. R. Ker's Two Notes on MS. Ashmole 328 in Med.
(Feb.) deal with Byrhtferih's Manual The first states that the
text of pp. 26-40 of the manuscript is not incomplete (cf.

OLD ENGLISH 87

Crawford's edition) but merely dislocated; the second draws
attention to tlie loss of a leaf after p. 168, a point not noted
before and for which the writer gives suitable evidence.

In the December number of Archiv F. Mezger writes on
Der germanische Kult und die ae. Feminina auf -icge und -estre.
To put his argument briefly: such derivatives indicate
female persons. The question about their origin is diversely
answered. Superficially it is obvious, but all the facts have not
been made clear. It is to their exact meaning rather than to
their detailed philological development that we must go.
Woman in her capacity as wise woman or prophetess stands
forth : early forms like dryicge and gealdricge produce analogical
forms witicge. Connected with this group too is the set of deri-
vatives centring round crceft, i.e. crceftiga, &c. Such words
have a double significance, one belonging to a much older
period than the other and developing a more superficial
significance with the coming of Christianity.

Similar comments are forthcoming on derivatives in -lac
(cf. Gothic laiks, ON. leiJcr) with the original meaning of 'dance,
worship ', &c. Female activity was especially marked in such a
cult and it is to such that we must ultimately go for the
explanation of words in -icge and -estre, not only, moreover, in
Old English, but also in Germanic generally. With the arrival of
monasticism we find side by side the forms pingestre (a female
mediator) andpingere (a masculine intercessor). The writer also
goes into the probable phonetic development of -sir-.

In the Saga-Book of the Viking Society, vol. xi, part ii, A. H.
Smith follows up work by Grant Loomis, already referred to in
The Tear's JFor#,xiii. 70-landxiv. 99, viz. the connexion between
the St. Edmund legend and the story of Ragnar Lothbrok, the
viking. Smith's object is to speak of some of Ragnar' s sons and
more particularly to correlate the various accounts of them in
the different records. He deals in some detail with the relation-
ship between the English and Scandinavian records of these
persons, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Asser's Life of Alfred, Abbo
of Fleury's Life of St. Edmund on the one hand; and Saxo's
History, the Saga of Ragnar, the Thldttr of Ragnar's sons, and

88 OLD ENGLISH

the KrdJcumdl on the other. By sifting Ms material he shows
that there was a traditional belief in England that the three
leaders in 866, Ingware, Ubba, and Halfdane were brothers,
sons of the redoubtable Lothbrok. A fourth son, Baerin (i.e.
Bjorn of the sagas), said in Scandinavian sources also to have
raided England, only occurs as a viking leader in Piramus's La
Vie Seint Edmund le Bey. Smith is unable to solve the origin of
the Old English personage Halfdane, who does not appear in
Old Norse records at all. In the section of his article called dis-
crepancies between English and Scandinavian accounts the
writer suggests that the Wendover-version of the Lothbrok
story, which differs from the Ella-version in the sagas and yet
deals with the great invasion of England is merely a 'con-
taminated' account. This view differs from that expressed by
H. G. Leach. Smith would also urge the importance, in the
evolution of the English legend, of Ingwar's association with
the death of Edmund and not with that of Ella (except in
Simeon of Durham).

In J.E.G.P. (Oct.) P. W. Grube writes on Meat Foods of the
Anglo-Saxons, collecting an amount of information from such
sources as Leechdoms and Laws, Wills and Charters. He de-
scribes the domestic animals, domestic fowl, and game birds
used by our fathers for food and also gives some account of the
method used in cooking them. Many Anglo-Saxon food names
are mentioned as being either desirable or undesirable for
particular types of digestion (a very modern characteristic),
while others are regarded with superstitious fear as primitive
man might do.

In Speculum (Jan.) under the heading The Vercelli Book: a
New Hypothesis, by reference to the Laud manuscript of the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, sub anno 1<H7, S. J. Herben, Jr., adds
what he calls the most plausible hypothesis to the five already
existing ones, for explaining why the Vercelli manuscript of
Old English writings finds itself in the cathedral library at
Vercelli instead of in England. The annal runs : Ond eft se papa
hcefde synod on Vercel. Ond Ulfse biscop compcerto ondforneah
man sceolde tobrecan Ms stef gif he ne seolde pe mare gersuman

OLD ENGLISH 89

fordan he ne cude don his gerihte swa wd swa he sceolde. Herben
suggests that the above gersuman included the Vercelli Codex,
a valuable object even in the eleventh century.

Leeds Studies in English, No, 4, contributes one article to this
section of The Tear's Work. A. S. C. Ross writes on The Norn.
Ace. Sg. Fern, and the Anglo-Frisian Hi-Pronoun. For the
forms cited by the writer to illustrate his conclusions about the
morphology of this pronoun the reader must be referred to
the article itself. They are classified to exemplify the special
factors which, in the opinion of the writer, have affected their
phonological development, viz. they have been subjected
through special conditions of stress to lengthening and accent
shift and they tend to be influenced by the paradigm of the
definite article.

In Anglia (June), dedicated to Karl Luick, Walther Fischer
writes on Wanderer, v. 25 and v. 6-7. The first passage sohte sele
dreorig sinces bryttan the writer would read as sohte seledreorig
takz&gseledreorig as a compound adjective paraflelto wwterceor^,
&c., applied to the wanderer himself, 'trauernd urn den SaaV. He
quotes in support sele-rcedend, sele-dream, &c., and dreor-sele in
the Wife's Lament In spite of the claimed improvement in syn-
tax, it seems hardly worth while to suppose a problematical com-
pound. It is difficult to see how seledreorig could have quite that
meaning.

A more attractive suggestion is made for the second passage,
to take hryre as an accusative with cwcep, the wanderer 'told of
the fall of Ms kinsmen'.

With a comment on two other articles in the same number we
conclude our survey of a very prolific year in Old English work.
Untersuchungen ilber die germanischen schwachen Verben III.
Klasse (unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung des Altenglischen) is
the title of H. Flasdieck's contribution. The first part deals with
what the writer calls fundamental questions, i.e. the criteria of
the original connexion between 5- and ai- verbs classes and an
analysis of certain forms of the o- verbs and of the ai- verbs. He
then examines verbs found in certain early Old English texts.
The rest of this first section deals with verbs belonging to the III

90 OLD ENGLISH

group of weak verbs habban, secg(e)an,, libban, &c. The second
part considers the verbal forms in the other Germanic dialects,
OHG., Old Frisian, Gothic, and the Old Norse dialects. Finally
Flasdieck discusses the form and inflexion of these verbs. For
details the reader is referred to an article which is most thoroughly
and carefully worked out.

In the same number W. Krogmann has written on the ety-
mology of the Old English to-socnung.

IV

MIDDLE ENGLISH.
I. CHAUCER, GOWER, AND LYDGATE

By DOBOTHY EVEBETT

THE year has been one of considerable activity among students
of Chaucer and, though there is nothing to record of such out-
standing importance as some of the books mentioned in preced-
ing years, there are not a few publications which have, in one way
or another, advanced our knowledge and understanding of the
poet's works.

The following survey will begin with two articles on Chaucer's
attitude towards the use of rhetoric. In Clmucer and Elocution
(Medium JEvum, Oct.) R. C. Goffin contributes some notes on
the three items in Chaucer's description of ' heigh style ', namely,
'termes of philosophye', 'figures of poetrye 5 , and 'colours of
rethoryke' (Hous of Fame, 857 ff.). Goffin emphasizes the con-
nexion between Chaucer's frequent apologies for plain speech
and the rhetorical doctrine that "style followed theme, or the
character of the personages treated 5 . He points out that * Elo-
quence 5 is one of the qualities expected of the ideal courtly
lover, but while the lover should have command of the f goodly
word' (Legende of Good Women, Prologue, B 77), he should
avoid learned subtleties ; uniformity of style is to be aimed at
('Hold of thy matere The forme alwey, and do that it be lyk ? ,
Troilus, ii. 1039-40). Goffin is convinced that Chaucer himself
distrusted the 'heigh style 5 of the rhetoricians with its use of
'termes of phisyk 5 (cf. Troilus, ii. 1038) and elaborate poetic
diction, though this did not prevent his making humorous use
of such things.

In an interesting discussion as to whether Chaucer intended
any distinction between * figures of poetrye' and 'colours of
rhetoryke 5 , Goffin notes that, as the Middle Ages wore on,
* figures ' were more and more associated with metaphor, symbol,
and allegory ( ' the poetic way of imagination in the Middle Ages ' ),
whereas 'colours' usually referred to mere ornament and the
term was often used disparagingly. Goffin gives a number of

92 MIDDLE ENGLISH

illustrations of the poetic devices to which Chaucer applies the
word ' figure 3 . Since the 'colours' used by Chaucer, both seri-
ously and satirically, have already received a good deal of atten-
tion from scholars, Goffin confines him self to illustrating the one
which he thinks demands fuller treatment, the Example from
history or classical literature.

B. S. Harrison's article, The Rhetorical Inconsistency of
Chaucer's Franklin (S. in Ph., Jan.), is concerned with Chaucer's
use of rhetoric in one portion only of the Canterbury Tales. The
writer considers how Chaucer meant us to understand the Frank-
lin's apology for his ignorance of rhetoric (Franklin's Prologue,
F 716 ff.) in view of the fact that his Tale is full of rhetorical
devices. Such devices are not, indeed, confined to the Tale;
the Franklin's apology is itself an example of 'a long-established
convention' and several of the lines in it witness to his skill in
rhetoric. Harrison thinks that there are three possible explana-
tions of this inconsistency. The apology may be merely a mean-
ingless conventional gesture ; or, it and the Tale may have been
written at different times and never properly correlated ; or, the
poet may be making fun of his readers. Harrison might have
found some support for his third explanation in a passage in the
Hous of Fame where the eagle, like the Franklin, disclaims rhetori-
cal subtleties, though his speech, like the Franklin's, is full of
them (cf. F. E. Teager, Chaucer's Eagle and the Rhetorical
Colours, P.M.L.A., June 1932).

Among the publications concerned with Chaucer's minor
works, Carleton Brown's Chaucer's 'Wrecked Engendring*
(P.M.L.A., Dec.) first claims attention since, if his theories
be accepted, he has the rare distinction of having added an
item to the Chaucer canon. His suggestion is that the poem
An Holy Medytacion, ascribed by MacCracken to Lydgate
and printed by him in the first volume of Minor Poems of Lyd-
gate, is in reality the work referred to by Chaucer in the lines.

And of the Wreched Engendrynge of Mankynde
As man may in pope Innocent y-fynde.

(Legende of Good Women, G Prologue)

Some years ago Brown gave a number of reasons for excluding
An Holy Medytacion from the Lydgate Canon (cf. M.L.N. xl)

MIDDLE ENGLISH 93

and, though he now holds that one of the arguments then ad-
duced is without weight, he still maintains that the poem was
not written by Lydgate. In this view he has the support of the
well-known editor of Lydgate, Henry Bergen.

Brown showed in his earlier article that the English poem is
based directly on a thirteenth-century Latin RTiyikmus entitled
De Humana Miseria Tractatus, and he now proves conclusively,
by quotation of parallel passages, that this, in its turn, depends
upon Pope Innocent's De Contemptu Mundi. If it can be as-
sumed that Chaucer was the poet who produced the translation
of the Rhyttimus known as An Holy Medytacion, he may well
have done so before he knew Pope Innocent's work, but, by the
time he wrote the G Prologue to the Legende of Good Women,
he would certainly have been able to identify this as the direct
source of the Latin poem. Brown notes that Chaucer's words in
the lines in the G Prologue do not necessarily imply that his
work was translated directly from Pope Innocent's.

The evidence produced by Brown for Ms theory that An Holy
Medytacion is Chaucer's work is both external and internal. He
notes that in one of the two Shirley manuscripts in which it is
preserved (MS. Trin. Coll. Camb. B. 3. 20) it 'stands in a group
of five pieces of which the first, fourth, and fifth are known to be
by Chaucer 3 . Moreover, in his opinion, if allowance be made for
scribal carelessness, 'neither the language nor the metre is in-
consistent with this ascription 3 . Brown gives a long list of
rhymes which are paralleled in undoubted works of Chaucer
and an even more striking list of phrases which are character-
istic of him. He justly concludes that if Chaucer is not the
author of the poem, it must have been written as a conscious
imitation of his work. The latter supposition he dismisses on
the ground that Ho carry through a successful imitation of
Chaucer's style while translating a Latin treatise "De Humana
Miseria" would have been, one may well believe, an impossible
tour deforce 3 .

It was not to be expected that a theory so startling as this
would be accepted without discussion, and it may be noted that
it has already been subjected to detailed criticism in M.L.N.,
May 1936, where Brown's reply to this criticism will also be
found. Whether An Holy Medytacion be ultimately accepted

94 MIDDLE ENGLISH

as Chaucer's work or not, it should be recognized that Brown's
article has shed much light both on the sources and the text
of this poem.

In Chaucer's Debt to Sacrobosco (J.E.G.P., Jan.) S. W. Harvey
points out that in his Treatise on the Astrolabe Chaucer made
much more use of the De Sphaera of John de Sacrobosco than
has previously been thought. Harvey shows that some passages
are even translated directly from Sacrobosco's work, though
this is not Chaucer's usual way of using it. More often he com-
bines material from the Compositio et Operatio Astrolabii of
Messahalla with material from Sacrobosco, showing the same
methods of selecting and combining material from different
sources as those revealed in his poetry.

In Sir Peter and the "Envoy to Bukton' (P.Q., Oct.) Haldeen
Braddy calls attention to some information about Sir Peter
Bukton in the newly discovered Kirkstall Chronicles, 1355-1400
(edited by M. V. Clarke and N. Denholme-Young). According
to these Chronicles, when Eichard II 3 after his deposition, was
placed in Knaresborough Castle, he was entrusted to the care
of Sir Peter Bukton. This is an added proof of Sir Peter's con-
nexion with the cause of the Lancasters and a farther reason
for thinking that Chaucer, who also supported this cause, would
have come into contact with him. It, therefore, in Braddy's
opinion, strengthens the possibility that he was the 'meister
Bukton' of the Envoy.

Of the two publications concerned with the Hous of Fame,
the shorter, Previous Stones in 'The House of Fame' (M.L.N.,
May) by Howard R. Patch, consists of notes on the significance
of the stones mentioned in this poem. Patch emphasizes a sug-
gestion made earlier by Sypherd, that Chaucer had a special
reason for describing Fame's House as made of 'ston of beryl'
(11. 1183-7). The beryl was supposed to foster love and to cause
the man or woman who wore it to be 'muche worshipped 3 . In
Chaucer's poem it had, therefore, a 'twofold appropriateness'
and Chaucer himself adds yet another when he tells us (11. 1288-
91) that the walls of beryl 'made wel more than hit was To
semen, everythynge, y-wis'.

MIDDLE ENGLISH 95

The ruby, of which Fame's 'see imperiall 5 was composed (of.
Ecus of Fame, 1361-3), is also appropriate in its context, for
it wins 'honeur and grace 3 for him who has it and also, judging
from Chaucer's references to it elsewhere, it sometimes symbo-
lizes love.

The other publication, Bertrand H. Bronson's paper Chaucer's
Hous of Fame: Another Hypothesis? should have been noticed
last year. Reviewing earlier attempts at the interpretation of
the poem, Bronson first dismisses 'all theories which seek to
impose upon the poem an elaborate allegorical interpretation 5 ,
and then considers Sypherd's work on it. He agrees that
Sypherd has demonstrated its relation to the genre of the Old
French love vision but insists that the 'value and significance
of the poem lie in its departures from the type 5 rather than in
its conformity with it. There are no grounds, he thinks, for the
view that the poem was meant to be the prologue to a love-tale
or love-tales; it is, on the contrary, * nearly complete as it
stands 5 , lacking only its conclusion, which would have been its
climax. This conclusion was to contain *newe tydinges 5 , to be
uttered by the 'man of gret auctorite 5 (see the last line of the
poem) ; that is, according to Bronson, it was to tell not of some
legendary love-story but of some contemporary event. But
Bronson does not believe with Brusendorff that the tidings
would have been about the forthcoming marriage of Richard II
and Anne of Bohemia. Lines 2134-8 may be an allusion to this
marriage, but if so, these lines can only mean that Chaucer is
not going to speak of it in this poem.

Searching the poem itself for clues as to the nature of the
tidings, Bronson suggests that Chaucer may intentionally have
made a distinction (in 11. 644-51) between tidings c fro fer con-
tree 5 and those of his ' verray neyghbores ', and, since in 11. 2 1 34-
8 he has definitely set aside the former, he probably meant the
'man of great authority 5 to speak of the love affairs of some
acquaintance in high position. Further, Bronson thinks that
it would fit in with the tone of the poem as a whole if the tidings
were 'of dubious credit to the person celebrated: some gossip
perhaps of a great man's infidelity in love 5 . If this were so, and

1 Chaucer's Hous of Fame: Another Hypothecs, by Bertrand H. Bron-
son. California Univ. Press and C.U JP. 1934. Is. 3d.

96 MIDDLE ENGLISH

Chaucer by the conclusion and climax of Ms poem had given
offence to some important person, it might explain why this
conclusion has not survived ; for, as Bronson remarks, there is
'something . . . highly suspicious about the poem's breaking off
just at the crucial point of the narrative. It has the air not of
chance but of deliberate intent.' Bronson refrains from pro-
posing 'a candidate for the unfilled niche in the Hous of Fame' ,
and aims merely at indicating the direction in which the final
solution will be found.

The same writer has this year published an interesting essay
on the Parhment of Foulest He believes that Chaucer's love
visions have been undervalued by many critics and he begins
by stressing their individuality. There follows a statement with
which not all critics and lovers of Chaucer will agree, even though
they may appreciate many of the points which are made to de-
pend upon it. 'It is clear enough', says Bronson, speaking of
the cult of courtly love and of the love vision type of poem, 'that
the subject and the genre were radically uncongenial to his
[Chaucer's] temperament ', and he suggests that Chaucer's 're-
current disclaimer' of personal knowledge of love is not merely
a joke. He is on firmer ground when he proceeds to emphasize
the ironic tone of the Parlement, speaking of it as 'the medium
in which the poem exists its unifying principle'.

The analysis of the poem which Bronson undertakes in order
to reveal the quality of its pervading irony contains some acute
observations and is in essentials faithful to the spirit and letter
of the original. Of real value is his recognition of the significance
of the poet's account of the Somnium Scipionis (see especially
1L 50-70). This passage, he observes, calls to mind the end of
Troilus and Criseyde, but while that poem can bear the 'full
weight' of the contrast between earthly 'felicite' and heavenly,
the Parlement could not, and so here the poet set down the
solemn matter of the Somnium side by side with the dream,
without comment. The effect is to impart 'a flavor of irony
to the fantasy of the vision'. The incongruous role played by
Afiicanus in the dream continues the ironic note and so too, in

2 In Appreciation of Chaucer's Parlement of Foules, by Bertrand H.
Bronson. California Univ. Press and C.U.P. Is. 6cL

MIDDLE ENGLISH 97

Bronson's opinion, does the stanza addressed to Cytherea. In
connexion with this stanza Bronson discusses at some length
the meaning of the phrase 'north-north-west 3 . His suggestion
is that it has something of the same force as when Hamlet used
it (cf. 'I ain but mad north-north-west' 'hardly at all').
Chaucer means that when he began to write he hardly saw
Venus at all, or, in other words, that the beginning of the
Parlement was 'far from being conceived under the inspiration
of the goddess of love'.

Passing to the birds' debate, Bronson rejects the view that
it is an example of the conventional demande d' amour and shows
that it differs in several important respects from works of this
type. Nor, in his opinion, is its meaning to be sought in any
historical situation. 'The birds ... are types of humanity' and
not individuals; they represent the contrasting attitudes to-
wards love of the 'idealist' and 'realist', and in the course of
their debate Chaucer directs his irony against both.

Finally, Bronson briefly considers the relation of the poem to
the typical love vision. While it contains almost all the stock
conventions of this genre, most of them are so 'transmogrified'
that the poem is, as he says, 'the most highly individualized
of all Chaucer's love visions' except the Hous of Fame. This
exception leads to the question whether the Hous of Fame
should not be regarded as the later work of the two, but the
Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, wHch is indubitably
the last of the love visions and yet is faithful to the convention,
would appear to be an argument against this.

A letter by Haldeen Braddy on The Historical Background of
the Parlement of Foules (R.E.S., April) was mentioned last year
in connexion with the article by John Matthews Manly (R.E.S.,
July 1934) to which it is an answer (see The Tear's Work, xv.
89-90).

E. C. Goffin has produced an edition of selected portions of
Troilus and Criseyde 3 for the use of schools and colleges. WMle
recognizing that the poem suffers from 'any kind of abridge-
ment', he considers that 'practical reasons' justify his experi-

3 Chaucer: Troilus and Griseyde, abridged and ed. by R. C. Goffin.
O.U.F. pp. xxxiv-|~131. 3s.

2762.16 Q.

98 MIDDLE ENGLISH

ment and lie hopes that some understanding of the * greatness
of Chaucer's one finished masterpiece 3 may be gained from his
edition. Goffin's abridged version does succeed in presenting
the story as a coherent whole, but inevitably it has to omit much
that lovers of the poem will regret.

To some extent Goffin makes up for his omissions in the
Introduction and Notes. The Introduction concerns itself with
some of the 'contemporary conventions and inherited tradi-
tions' which it is necessary to understand if the poem is to
be properly appreciated; some account is given, for instance,
of the tradition of courtly love, of the medieval conception of
' tragedy ', and of Chaucer's interest in and use of rhetoric. It
may be questioned, however, whether the treatment of these
matters is always elementary enough for the beginner in medieval
literature ; the editor tends sometimes to substitute for simple
exposition a discussion of those aspects of them that particu-
larly interest him.

In The Date of the 'Troilus' and Minor CTmuceriana (M.L.N.,
May) J. S. P. Tatlock reviews the evidence adduced by various
scholars for the date of Troilus and Criseyde. He disagrees with
Lowe's suggestion that the line 'Right as oure firste lettre is
now an A* (i. 171) is a reference to Queen Anne and that it
serves to date the poem after January 1382 when Richard and
Anne were married. Nor does he accept Root's view that the
conjunction of Jupiter, Saturn, and the crescent Moon described
in iii. 624-5 must indicate that the poem was 'not finished
earlier than the Spring of 1385 J (Root), when this unusual con-
junction actually took place. Since such a phenomenon would
certainly have been foreseen by astrologers long before it
occurred, Tatlock maintains that reference could have been
made to it several years earlier.

While not arguing for any particular date, Tatlock is doubt-
ful about a late one. He thinks that Troilus was certainly writ-
ten before the 'Love of Palamon and Arcite' (The Knight's
Tale). In support of this relative chronology he draws attention
to the references to Dane (Daphne) in the two poems. In
Troilus, iii. 726 Chaucer mentions Dane, but many of the earliest
manuscripts produce the name as 'Diane'. The poet was 'evi-
dently annoyed by this error ' and in the reference in the Knight's

MIDDLE ENGLISH 99

Tale (A 2063-4) he breaks out, 'I mene nat the goddesse Diane,
But Penneus doughter which that highte Dane 3 . In support of
a fairly early date for the composition of the original draft of
Troilus, Tatlock notes that a considerable period of time must
be allowed for the revisions of the poem.

Charles Child Walcutt has made a study of Chaucer's use of
the plural and singular forms of the pronoun of address in
Troilus (The, Pronoun of Address in 'Troilus and Criseyde 3 ,
P.Q., July). The fact that Troilus and Criseyde almost always
address one another with the plural pronoun is a sign, he thinks,
of the extent to which Chaucer followed the court of love con-
ventions in this poem, especially since, in II Filostrato, the lovers
use the familiar form of address. Walcutt also comments on
the method of address used by other characters. Pandarus at
first addresses Troilus as 'yow 5 , but afterwards as *thee 3 , "thou*
except when he is being specially serious ; Criseyde he usually
addresses as 'yow', but in moments of excitement he drops into
the singular pronoun. An interesting fact is that, while Pan-
darus, as one would expect, uses the polite pronoun to Helen
and Deiphebus, Deiphebus addresses him as c thee', c thou ? . This
evidence that Deiphebus does not consider Pandarus as an equal
helps to throw light on Chaucer's conception of the character.

In a letter headed with the ( ? unintentional) misquotation
6 Lollius myn Autour' (T.L.S., Dec. 28) Catharine Carswell sug-
gests an explanation of Chaucer's references to Lollius which,
though not impossible, involves several improvable hypo-
theses. She suggests that Lollius may have been the nickname
given to Boccaccio by Petrarch, who had a habit of giving clas-
sical nicknames to members of the literary circle to which he
belonged. Further, she supposes that Chaucer may have met
Boccaccio and asked permission to use his writings, and that
Boccaccio, now grown old and repentant for some of his earlier
follies, gave him leave, provided he did not mention his name.
In using the nickname Lollius, Chaucer would have fulfilled
Boccaccio's condition, in the letter at least, and at the same time
satisfied his own desire to give Mm his due.

The difficult task of rendering the Canterbury Tales in "modern
dress ' has been twice undertaken recently. Frank Ernest Hill's

100 MIDDLE ENGLISH

rendering first appeared in 1934 and has been republished in a
cheaper edition in 1936 ; 4 J. U. Mcolson's appeared in 1935,
with a short introduction by Gordon Hall Geronld. 5 Both trans-
lators have followed Chaucer's metrical schemes, using the
heroic couplet where he does and even using his tail-rhyme
stanza in Sir Thopas. In the introduction to the second of these
translations Gerould claims that Mcolson's version has the
* merit of faithfulness' and that he has 'added less and sub-
tracted less than most of his predecessors', but Hill's version
also keeps remarkably close to Chaucer, sometimes even closer
than Mcolson's. The two renderings of the familiar first four
lines of the Prologue will illustrate this. Mcolson's runs,

When April with his showers sweet with fruit
The drought of March has pierced unto the root
And bathed each, vein with liquor that has power
To generate therein and sire the flower . . .

while Hill, sacrificing the rhyme in the first couplet, writes,

When April with his showers hath pierced the drought
Of March, with sweetness to the very root,
And flooded every vein with liquid power
That of its strength engendereth the flower ; . . .

It is of course a question whether a very close rendering really
does most justice to Chaucer and whether, if modernizations
are needed, they should not be real ones, attempting to convey
to the modern reader as much as possible of the spirit of Chaucer,
which he can appreciate, rather than the letter, which he may
not understand. The reader who can grasp the full meaning of
the line, 'So pleasant was his Inprincipio* (preserved unaltered
except for spelling by both translators) or of the couplet, He
knew the cause of every malady, Were it of hot or cold, of moist
or dry' (Mcolson ; Hill's 'Were it from Hot or Cold or Moist or
Dry' does not make it any easier) could surely be trusted to
understand what Chaucer himself wrote.

4 The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer, rendered into modern
English verse by Frank Ernest Hill. 2 vols. Limited Editions Club.
xxii+330, 331-670. Also published in 1 vol. Allen and Unwin, 1936.
pp. 583. 105. Qd.

5 Geoffrey Chaucer: Canterbury Tales, rendered into Modern English
by J". U. Mcolson. Harrap. pp. xviii+627. 12s. 6cL

MIDDLE ENGLISH 101

Two editions of parts of the Canterbury Tales liave appeared
this year, Carleton Brown's edition of the Pardoner's Tale,
which will be considered together with other work on that Tale,
and Gordon Hall Gerould's edition of The Prologue and Four
Canterbury Tales 6 (i.e. the Tales of the Nun's Priest, the Par-
doner, the Franklin, and the Second Nun). For the last of these
Gerould puts in a special plea, remarking that it has 'seldom
received its due meed of praise'. He claims that in it Chaucer
turned "mediocre prose to poetry of singular sweetness' and
he comments on its c hymn-like melody'. At the end of the
selection of Tales Gerould reprints a number of Middle English
lyrics, including some of Chaucer's. The texts are preceded by a
brief but well conceived introduction dealing with Chaucer's
life and works. The critical apparatus that accompanies them
is probably sufficient for the general reader but would hardly
meet the needs of the serious student.

The purpose of J. S. P. Tatlock's long and important article
The 'Canterbury Tales' in 1400 (P.M.L.A., Mar.) is to consider
systematically the various possibilities about the condition
of the Tales shortly before and after Chaucer's death and to
present, even if tentatively, a clear-cut view of the history of
the work.

Tatlock accepts the surmise that Chaucer wrote on loose
sheets of vellum or paper but he does not think there is any-
thing to indicate whether these were entirely separate or were
in quires, as Miss Hammond and Brusendorff thought. Nor does
he find any evidence to show whether the order of the items in
a group (i.e. in a group such as A, the contents of which are
certain) was determined by some such means as sewing or
tying, or was merely indicated by notation on the items them-
selves or on a memorandum, or whether it was not indicated
at all but is due to the intelligence of the scribes or 'editors'.

Tatlock finds some evidence, but not a great deal, that Chau-
cer made revisions in his own manuscript, but there is, as he
says, far more evidence of lack of revision. He agrees with those
scholars who have held that Chaucer was not responsible for

6 The Prologue and Four Canterbury Tales, ed. by Gordon Hall
Gerould. New York : Nelson, pp. 138.

102 MIDDLE ENGLISH

the 'titles, headings and endings of the parts 5 but thinks, with
Brusendorff, that the 'marginal Latin extracts from sources ' are
due to him, as also the Latin glosses found above difficult words.
If this is so, it seems likely that the extant manuscripts derive,
not from a 'fair copy 5 , but directly from Chaucer's original
manuscript. Tatlock believes that the evidence points against
'publication' or unlimited circulation of the whole work during
Chaucer's life-time.

When, after Chaucer's death, his own 'informal draft' of the
Tales, still on separate sheets or quires, came into the hands of
the professional scribe or bookseller, among the chief difficulties
to be faced were the gaps and breaks in continuity. Since these
might lead a reader to suspect that his copy was damaged or
incomplete, various expedients were adopted to allay this suspi-
cion or prevent its arising. For instance, rubrics, headings, and
titles were inserted to conceal gaps, and incomplete items were
sometimes omitted. In Tatlock's opinion ' A large part of the
changes and adjustments in the MSS. were for the contentment
and convenience of readers' ; and on this opinion his interpreta-
tion of the present state of the manuscripts largely depends.
In this section of his article he discusses fully the problem of
the 'Man of Law's End-Link' and arrives at conclusions which,
in the main, agree with those of Tupper set forth in his article
last year (cf. The Year's Work, xv. 92-4).

Tatlock approaches the thorny problem of the arrangement
of the Tales by first enumerating and examining the four kinds
of evidence on the arrangement which he thinks reliable, namely,
'joining by links, clear allusions to earlier incidents of the pil-
grimage, notes of place, notes of time'. He decides that this
evidence points to the order A B 1 B 2 C D E-F G H-I, the order
adopted by Furnivall and Skeat. If, however, this is the order
intended by Chaucer, why is it not found in any one of the
manuscripts ? In his answer to this question, Tatlock insists
that if Chaucer left his manuscript in the state previously sug-
gested, there is no reason why the arrangements in the manu-
scripts should have any authority, unless Chaucer left notes
about the order. If he did, 'probably all would agree that the
order could be only that of MS. Ellesmere and a few later
congeners', but there are various reasons for regarding this as

MIDDLE ENGLISH 103

unauthoritative, one being the condition of its 'nearest relative ',
Hengwrt. TMs manuscript is claimed by Tatlock as the work
of the same scribe as Ellesmere, but it was written earlier than
Ellesmere. Its arrangement is ' one of the very worst ' of all the
manuscript arrangements. In a long and detailed 'Note on the
Hengwrt MS.' appended to his article Tatlock explains Ms
reasons for thinking that the scribe of Hengwrt copied from
loose sheets and was obliged to evolve Ms own arrangement.
When he came to write his later copy, Ellesmere, f he took more
care or better guidance, and got a more satisfactory order', but
Tatlock's examination of this order suggests that there is a
principle behind it which could hardly have been the author's.

Finally, Tatlock asks whether there is anything to suggest
that some of the oft-recurring sequences of groups may be due
to Chaucer and replies that 'evidence for arrangement of the
"groups" indicated externally by Chaucer does not exist 3 .

Some of Tatlock's conclusions were, of course, anticipated by
Tupper's article of last year, but Tatlock's examination of the
problems presented by the manuscripts of the Tales covers a
great deal more ground.

In Corrections in the Paris Manuscript of Chaucer 9 s t Canter-
bury Tales' (Texas Studies in English, 15) Martin Michael
Crow records the results of his examination of the corrections
in MS. fonds anglais 39 (Ps.) in the Bibliotheque Nationale. He
notes that these corrections are in two hands, the first that of
the professional scribe of the manuscript, who signs himself at
the end 'Duxworth Scriptor', the second that of Jean, conte
d'Angouleme, who owned the manuscript. Crow's careful
examination of the differences in the handwritings of these two
men has enabled him to determine in most cases for which of
the 420 corrections in the manuscript each was responsible and,
therefore, to discover the 'habits and purposes of each corrector'.

Duxworth's corrections, which are always inconspicuous,
appear to have been made in order to bring the text into con-
formity with that of the manuscript by which he corrected. This
manuscript was apparently a good one, much better than his
exemplar, for his corrections almost always give a correct read-
ing* Since in B 2 and G, however, there are several corrections

104 MIDDLE ENGLISH

4 erroneous at least in part and showing agreement in error with,
large groups of manuscripts',, Crow suggests that from the
beginning of B 2 Duxworth must have used a second manuscript
for his corrections. The nature of most of his corrections show
him to have been on the whole a careful scribe anxious to pro-
duce a correct text; very few of his alterations are ' editorial'
attempts to improve the text.

Angouleme's corrections differ from Duxworth's in appear-
ance and purpose. Angouleme made no attempt to conceal
them and his aim in introducing them was ' to secure a readable
text' both by clarifying the sense and improving the metre.
Some of his corrections were made from another (and a good)
manuscript, but some were evidently not, c for often where he
detects omissions he inserts unique readings' instead of the
correct readings. Crow gives a number of examples of such
unique readings; he also gives examples of Angouleme's
peculiar spellings, some of which are Northern in character
while others, according to Crow, are 'phonetic spellings in-
fluenced by French'.

In his article on The Marriage Debate in the ' Canterbury Tales '
(E.L.H., Nov.) Clifford P. Lyons quotes and discusses Kittredge's
statement of the theory that a part of the Canterbury Tales is to
be regarded as a debate on the subject of marriage. Lyons
agrees that the tales of the Wife of Bath, the Clerk, the Mer-
chant, and the Franklin do illustrate 'conflicting ideas about
conjugal soveteignty', but finds no confirmation of the view
that 'the ideas on marriage in the tales are dramatized as a
debate among the Pilgrims '. He argues that, if Chaucer had
intended these tales to be contributions to a discussion on
marriage, he would have made it clear in the comments on them.
Actually, as Lyons points out, there is no mention whatever of
the subject of marriage in the comments on the Wife's Prologue
and Tale.

Kittredge, regarding the Clerk's Envoy as an attack on the
Wife of Bath, stressed its dramatic significance as part of the
debate and as perfectly suited to the Clerk, but Lyons denies
that it is an attack on the Wife; in his view it is merely a
'jovially ironical song ... in her honour'. Nor does he consider

MIDDLE ENGLISH 105

the Merchant's Tale an attack upon her. Though the unfor-
tunate experiences in marriage of both the Merchant and the
Host might have made them opponents of the Wife, there is
nothing either in the Merchant's Tale or in the Host's comment
on it to indicate that they regard themselves as such. Finally,
there is no suggestion that the Franklin's Tale, which, accord-
ing to Kittredge, offers the solution of the problem of sovereignty
in marriage, was intended to be connected in subject with the
other tales. Chaucer seems to have thought of it as presenting a
'problem in gentilnesse' (cf. F 1622, Which was the mooste fre,
as thynketh yow ? ')

The publications which follow next are each concerned with
a single item in the Canterbury Tales. They will be taken in
the order of the Tales as found in Skeat's edition.

Among the notes on the Prologue there are two dealing with
the Friar. In A Note on Chaucer's Friar (M.L.N., Feb.) Karl
Young considers the meaning of A 212-13, c He hadde maad ful
many a mariage Of yonge wommen at his owene cost'. The most
generally accepted interpretation, that the Friar provided for
the marriage of young women whom he had seduced, seems to
Young 'unescapable', and he is able to produce a new piece of
historical evidence showing that such a proceeding was not un-
known in Chaucer's day. In an unpublished memorandum of
the year 1321 from the register of John de Drokensford, Bishop
of Bath and Wells, a certain vicar named Geoffrey was f charged
with having broken his promise to provide funds toward a suit-
able marriage for a certain Juliana, by whom he had had 2
children'.

In the contribution to M.L.N. (May) entitled The Date of
the 'Troilus' and Minor Chauceriana, J. S. P. Tatlock includes
a note on the order to which the Friar belonged. He is apparently
not of the same order as the Friar of the Summoned s Tale who
was probably a Carmelite, since the Carmelites claimed Elijah
as their founder (cf. D, 11. 2116-17). Lines 242-7 in the Prologue
would have special point if he were a Franciscan, but Chaucer's
portrait is by no means unmistakably that of a Franciscan
and, on the whole, it is more likely that it is c a composite
picture'.

106 MIDDLE ENGLISH

Albert Eichler in Zu Chaucer, 'Canterbury Tales, General Pro-
logue', 1. 207 (Eng. Stud., April) discusses the plirase 'broun as
a berye 3 , still, of course, in use. He asks to what berry the
epithet 'brown' would be appropriate and suggests the haw, at
some stages of its ripening. He notes, however, that English
popular speech is lax in its use of the colour words 'brown' and
c red* (cf. a red cow).

In her note 'Folding' and 'Medhe* (J.E.G.P., Jan.) M.
Charming Linthicum comments on the variety of woollen stuffs
in use in Chaucer's day, as evidenced by the dress of the pil-
grims. She explains the nature of 'falding 5 (A 391) and of
'medlee' (A 328), worn by the Shipnian and the Sergeant of
the Law respectively.

An article entitled The So-called Prologue to the 'Knight's
Tale' (M.L.N., May) by Willis J. Wager aims at proving by
detailed analysis that the second paragraph of the Knight's Tale
(A 875-92) was added by Chaucer at the time when he incor-
porated the already existing story of Palamon and Arcite in
the Canterbury Tales. Wager suggests that 11. 889-92, which
refer to the pilgrims, mark the end of the inserted passage, while
the shift of tenses between II. 873-6 ('Lete !...'!. 873, beside
6 1 wolde haue toold yow . . . ' 1. 876) indicates where this passage
begins. He notes that the eighteen lines which he believes to
have been inserted can be removed altogether without disturb-
ing the narrative. The first of them 'recount in orderly succes-
sion' incidents mentioned in the Knighfs Tale immediately
before the passage. Line 884 ('And of the tempest at hir hoom-
comynge 5 ), which has been taken as a reference to the storm
at sea on the occasion of the arrival of Queen Anne in England
in the year 1381, Wager interprets rather as a reference both
to the applause which greeted Theseus and Hippolyta on their
arrival in Greece and to the outcry of the Theban ladies whose
plight is described just after the 'inserted passage'. Hence, in
his opinion, no new fact is mentioned in these lines.

While there is, clearly, something to be said for the view (first
suggested by Tatlock) that these eighteen lines are a later inser-
tion into an earlier narrative, it is difficult to accept Wager's inter-
pretation of the word * tempest' on which his last point depends.

MIDDLE ENGLISH 107

George R. Coffman's Note on the, Miller's Prologue (M.L.N.,
May) suggests that in A 3141 ( Por I wol telle a legende and a
lyf... ') the Miller, who has already declared that he will meet
the Knight on his own ground (cf. A 3126-7), now turns to
challenge the Monk, whose place as story-teller he has taken
(cf. A 3118 ff.). Coffman points out that when, later on, the
Monk is once more invited to tell a tale, he makes a remark
which seems to be connected with the Miller's (cf. B 3160).

In Another Analogue to 'The Prioresses Tale' (M.L.N., May)
Woodburn 0. Boss draws attention to a hitherto unnoticed
analogue to the Prioress's Tale to be found in the Summa
Praedicantium of John Bromyard. He observes that this ver-
sion of the story of the boy murdered by Jews does not fit into
any of the three main classes into which Carleton Brown
divided the versions known to him, for it combines characteris-
tic features from each. This leads him to emphasize the 'tenta-
tive nature of Professor Brown's conclusions'. Further search
in collections of religious stories and in sermon manuscripts may
result in showing that the twenty-seven versions investigated
by Brown do not ' represent adequately the development of the
story'.

Roused by the statement in Robinson's edition of Chaucer's
Works that c two recent studies of Sir Thopas have made it seem
very probable that Chaucer had another purpose [than the
burlesquing of the metrical romances], perhaps his primary one,
namely, to poke fun at the Flemish knighthood', William W.
Lawrence proceeds to attack this interpretation of the c Rime'
in an article entitled Satire in 'Sir Thopas' (P.M.L.A., Mar.).
He first considers Miss Lilian Winstanley's theory that Sir
TTiopas was intended as a satire against Philip van Artevelde
and points out that the poem contains no reference, 'open or
concealed', to Philip, and that this theory implies that Chaucer
inserted into the Tales c satire of a man long since dead'. He
then turns to Manly's more plausible hypothesis. Manly stated
that c Chaucer's primary object was ... to produce a satire of
the countrymen of Sir Thopas', but Lawrence notes that the
only definite evidence in favour of this is the fact that Sir

108 MIDDLE ENGLISH

Thopas is said to have been born in Flanders. c ls it not danger-
ous ', he asks, 'to make the whole interpretation of the piece turn
on this ? ' Lawrence dissents from Manly's view that such a
satire 'would have been highly appropriate, during the visit
of the Flemish embassy fin 1383] ... or immediately after it*.
He maintains that the Flemish embassy was treated with polite-
ness and cordiality while in London and that there is little
ground for thinking that it 'would have seemed so ridiculous
that Chaucer was moved to create Sir Thopas 5 . Further, there
is no evidence that Sir Thopas was written as early as 1383 or
immediately after; it is much more likely that it was ' planned
for the dramatic situation in which it is so effectively intro-
duced' (Robinson). If it had been written in 1383-4 as a satire
on the Flemish embassy, it would have been stale by the time
it was incorporated in the Canterbury Tales.

The extravagant view of Chaucer's aims in Sir Thopas which
C. Camden, Jr., expresses in his note The Physiognomy of TJiopas
(R.E.S., July) shows that it was high time for a careful and
reasonable discussion of the problem such as Lawrence's. Cam-
den writes, c lt seems altogether likely . . . that Chaucer's inten-
tion was to write a rollicking tale which would be a sustained
burlesque on everything imaginable, from pompous Flemings to
literary conventions 3 . The immediate purpose of this note is to
show that, in describing Sir Thopas, Chaucer made use of phy-
sical characteristics which would have been recognized in the
fourteenth century as indicating a timid and cowardly man. His
'sydes smale', according to Metham's Physiognomy, signified
'ferffulness'; his white face ( c whit ... as payndemayn') and
his 'lippes rede as rose' were more suited to a woman than a
man and, in a man, a white complexion indicated timidity or
effeminacy* Camden suggests that in such details as these
Chaucer was burlesquing the typical knightly hero.

Inanote entitled Chaucer's 'Jewes Werk' and 'Guy of Warwick',
(P.#., Oct.) Laura Hibbard Loomis claims that Sir Thopas's
c fyn hawberk, Was al y-wroght of Jewes werk' was suggested
by a passage in the stanzaic Guy of Warwick (Auchinleck MS.),
a poem which has many verbal echoes in Sir Thopas. In stanza
91 of this poem we read c J>e hauberk he hadde was renis '. This
is Zupitza's reading, but the correct reading may be reuis. Mrs.

MIDDLE ENGLISH 109

Loomis thinks that the word renis/reuis is a scribal error for
ieuis, i.e. iewes (Jew's). If, as she believes, Chaucer knew the
Auchinleck MS. itself, it would not be impossible for him to
guess that ieuis was what the author had intended.

Students of Chaucer will be interested in Mrs. Loomis 's sug-
gestion that Chaucer knew the Auchinleck MS. and will look
forward to her promised article on this point.

J. Burke Severs has made an important contribution to
PMJLA. (Mar.) entitled The Source of Chaucer's 'Mdibeus'.
He has located twenty-six manuscripts of the Old French
Melibee which Chaucer used and has examined all but three of
these. As a result, he is able to show that the text in Le
Menagier de Paris, which is usually quoted by scholars in dis-
cussing the source of Melibeus, is unsatisfactory for that pur-
pose. To prove this Severs quotes a number of passages as they
appear in the original Latin, in Le Menagier, in one of the manu-
scripts he has examined (MS. fr. 1165 in the Bibliotheque
Nationale) and in Chaucer's Melibee. Though the variations
in the two French versions are often slight it is always with
MS. fr. 1165 rather than with Le Menagier that Chaucer agrees
in these passages. Other facts can also be deduced from the
comparison. Some of the passages indicate that Chaucer was
using a corrupt copy of the Melibee, for he has errors (also found
in MS. fr. 1165) which were not due to mistranslation and could
only have originated in "French miscopyings' from the original
French translation. His retention of these errors makes it un-
likely that Chaucer had access to a text of the Latin version,
as has been maintained by some scholars. Severs is able to
show that use of Le Menagier has led to false conclusions about
this matter. Some passages to which Grace W. Landrum
referred (P.M.L.A., xxxix) in order to prove that Chaucer did
use the Latin, are certainly lacking in Le Menagier, but they are
to be found in MS. fr. 1165 and were therefore, presumably, in
Chaucer's source. Comparison with MS. fr. 1165 shows, too,
that Chaucer did not alter his source in order to fit his material
for political propaganda, as J. Leslie Hotson thought (cf. S. in
Ph., xviii). This fact destroys much of the evidence for Hot-
son's theory that 'the Melibeus is a political tract, designed to

110 MIDDLE ENGLISH

dissuade John of Gaunt from launching on the invasion of

Castile in 1386 s .

It is important to notice that Severs does not claim that MS.
fr. 1165 is Chaucer's source or even that it gives a satisfactory
text of it. Indeed, he notes that in many places Le Menagier is
obviously closer to the version used by Chaucer than this manu-
script is. Severs states that neither separately 'affords a satis-
factory text Together, however, they come close to supply-

ing such a text 5 and he suggests that any deficiencies that re-
main can probably be supplied from among the remaining
twenty-five manuscripts.

The date of the composition of the Monk's Tale is discussed
by Haldeen Braddy in The Two Petros in the 'Monkes Tale*
(P.M.L.A., Mar.). A 'complicating factor 5 in the determina-
tion of it is, as he remarks, the presence of the 'Modern In-
stances'. As far as the stanza on Bernabo is concerned, Braddy
is apparently ready to accept the suggestion that it was com-
posed later than the other tragedies, for he agrees with Kit-
tredge that it bears signs of being an 'afterthought 5 ; but his
examination of the other three Modern Instances leads him to
believe that they were written as part of the series.

He first discusses the true position of the Modern Instances,
taking into consideration the manuscript variations in the Nun's
Priest's Prologue, which, in his opinion, have some bearing on
the problem. In ten manuscripts an important passage in this
Prologue (B 2 3961-80) is lacking. It is significant that the
absence of this passage does not result in any lack of coherence
in the Prologue, but it does result in the disappearance of the
line 'He spak how Fortune covered with a clowde 5 (B 2 3972),
which is a direct reference to the last line of the tragedy of
Croesus. This, remarks Braddy, 'proves conclusively that
when this passage was written the Modern Instances did not
stand at the end' of the series. He believes that the manu-
scripts indicate three stages in the arrangement of this material ;
in the first the Modern Instances were in the middle and were
followed by the shorter form of the 'Nun's Priest's Prologue' ;
in the second, the Modern Instances were in the same position
but were followed by the expanded Prologue 'a stage also no

MIDDLE ENGLISH 111

doubt attributable to Chaucer' ; in the third, the Modern In-
stances were at the end, 'probably as the result of scribal
arrangement', and were followed by the expanded Prologue.

If this view be accepted it follows, of course., that the Modern
Instances were written as part of the series of tragedies and that
4 the chronology of this group carries with it, therefore, the date
of the tale as a whole 3 . (Braddy is, of course, excepting the
Bernabo stanza from the statement, though he does not say so.)
This makes the stories of the two Tetros' of special significance,
for both these men died in 1369 and Chaucer would most prob-
ably have written his accounts of them not long after their
deaths* Moreover, Braddy thinks that the materials on which
Chaucer drew indicate an early date of composition. His ac-
count of the tragedy of Pedro of Spain differs from that of
Froissart and agrees with that of Ayala of Spain, which appears
to be the true one. It is hardly possible, however, that Chaucer
should have read Ayala's chronicle, and Braddy suggests that
he obtained his information through his friend, Sir Guichard
d' Angle, who was fighting in the Spanish campaign at the time
of Pedro's death,

Chaucer's account of 'Petro' of Cyprus is traced by Braddy
to Machault's La Prise d'Alexandrie, written about the year
1369. He points out that both accounts are historically in-
accurate and contain some of the same mistakes.

Braddy's evidence for the date of the Modern Instances (and
hence, according to his view, of the whole series of tragedies)
is then as follows : Chaucer could have obtained his information
about the two 'Petros' shortly after their deaths in 1369; in
the case of Pedro of Spain, he must, if Sir Guichard was Ms
informant, have obtained it before 1380, the year of Sir
Guichard's death. The Ugolino stanzas, which are dependent
on Dante, may well have been written about 1374, just after
Chaucer's introduction to Italian literature. This suggests
the date 1373-4 for the composition of the Monk's Tale as
a whole.

It is unfortunate that this ingenious argument has to depend
on a number of hypotheses, for, since the rejection of any one
of them would destroy it, it can hardly be regarded as finally
settling the problem of the date.

112 MIDDLE ENGLISH

In Vincent of Beauvais and Dame Pertelote's Knowledge of
Medicine (Speculum., July) Pauline Aiken shows that the Nun's
Priest's Tale bears several signs that Chaucer knew and used
Vincent of Beauvais's Speculum Naturale and Speculum Doc-
trinale. Especially, Pertelote's knowledge of medicine seems to
be derived from Vincent. Her general opinion of dreams
(B 4112 ff.), her 'more specific remarks' on dreams caused by
'rede colera 3 or by melancholy, and the remedies she suggests
(B 4151 ff.) all appear in his works. Several times her words
verbally echo passages in Vincent and once her exact sequence
of ideas can be found there. Other, non-medical, passages in
the Tale which are probably to be traced to him are Chante-
clere's account of Andromache's dream, the lines on the sirens
(B 4460-2), and possibly Chanticlere's Latin line 'Mulier est
hominis confusio 5 .

In a concluding paragraph Miss Aiken notes that 'every
detail of medical theory and practice not only in the Nun's
Priest's Tale but in the whole body of Chaucer's works 5 can be
found in Vincent of Beauvais, and an examination of the chief
medical works known in Chaucer's day has shown that this is
not true of any one of them*

A note by B[ruce] D[ickins] entitled 'Seynd Bacoun' (Leeds
Studies in English, No. 4) suggests that the 'seynd bacoun'
on which the poor widow of the Nun's Priest's Tale lived (cf.
B 4035) was not 'singed', 'broiled', or 'smoked' bacon but fat
bacon. Dickins would derive 'seynd' from O.F. saim, sain,
preserved in Modern Standard French saindoux, 'lard'.

Carleton Brown's edition of The Pardoner's Tale 7 for the use
of schools and colleges has an interesting and suggestive intro-
duction. The editor begins by showing how close Chaucer kept
to contemporary fact in his description of the Pardoner. It is
this 'close agreement between Chaucer's description and the
general reputation of pardoners in the fourteenth century ' that
makes him sceptical of Manly's theory that the portrait of the
Pardoner depicts an actual person.

Brown does not agree with those scholars who have thought

7 The Pardoner's Tale, ed. by Carleton Brown. O.U.P. pp. xl+63.
2s. 6d.

MIDDLE ENGLISH 113

that the Pardoner's Prologue and Tale were intended to be taken
together as an example of the medieval sermon, partly because
'the flippancy and cynicism of the Prologue stand 5 , he thinks,
'in the sharpest contrast to the seriousness which characterizes
the Tale 5 . Moreover, the Pardoner himself never refers to Ms
discourse as a sermon but speaks of telling a 'moral tale . . .
which I am wont to preche 5 , and this, says Brown, 'defines it
precisely as an exemplum', a mere section of a sermon.

Commenting on the lack of connexion between the 'Homily
on the Sins of the Tavern' in the earlier part of the Tale (11. 135-
332) and the Prologue and the tale proper, Brown accepts
Hinckley's suggestion that the Homily 'was originally intended
for the Parson rather than for the Pardoner' (Hinckley). The
opening passage of this Homily, as Miss Petersen showed, re-
sembles in several points the openings of two exempla in Thomas
of Cantimpre's Liber de Apibus, but in neither case is the story
that follows the same as that told by the Pardoner. Brown
suggests that the Homily may originally have been followed by
the story of the bleeding stranger found in the first of the two
relevant exempla in Thomas of Cantimpre's collection and that
Chaucer substituted for it the present Pardoner's tale at the
time when he transferred the 'Homily on the Sins of the Tavern 5
from the Parson to the Pardoner. Brown recognizes, of course,
that this theory of the evolution of the Pardoner's Tale is pure
hypothesis, but thinks that it offers the best explanation of a
number of difficulties.

The text of the Prologue and Tale used in this edition is,
except for the correction of a very few errors, that of Skeat. It
is followed by full notes dealing with grammatical and metrical
points, variant manuscript readings, allusions to contemporary
practices and ideas, and literary parallels and connexions. The
allusions and parallels are particularly illuminating and fulfil
the editor's aim of supplying the kind of 'explanation and inter-
pretation' needed 'for an intelligent appreciation of the Tale*
(Preface).

In A Note on Chaucer's Pardoner's Prologw (M.L.N., May)
Edward H. Weatherly mentions a fresh parallel to the device
of 'blackmail 5 employed by the Pardoner (C 377 ff.}. In a fif-
teenth-century Latin collection of religious narrative in MS.

2762.16

114 MIDDLE ENGLISH

Harl. 3938 tliere is an exemplum in which this same trick is
attributed to a pardoner of Ferrara. The fact that there exists
both this exemplum and the already familiar analogue in the
thirteenth-century German Pfaffe Ameis suggests to Weatherly
that Chaucer may have had some contemporary source for his
lines, possibly an exemplum very like this fifteenth-century one.

In Chaucer's 'Ladyes Foure and Twenty' (M.L.N., Feb.) Lilla
Train, accepting the earlier opinion that the description in the
Wife of Bath's Tale of the four-and-twenty ladies dancing
* under a forest syde* (D 989 ff.) is Chaucer's own addition to a
well-known story, suggests that the poet obtained the idea for
it from Walter Map's De Nugis Curialium. The passage in Map's
work to which she refers has certain similarities with Chaucer's
and it is, as Miss Train says, used by Map to make a transition
in his narrative, as is Chaucer's fairy description.

Most of the remaining Chaucer studies consist of facts and
surmises about the poet's life and family and, though it is very
different in conception from the rest, it will be convenient to
consider in this group the late George A. Plimpton's book, The
Education of Chaucer. 8 This is a beautifully produced volume
containing more than forty reproductions from manuscripts
that were in Plimpton's possession of medieval educational
works and works which were consulted for scientific or other
information. In the first chapter, which is entitled c The World
in Chaucer's Day', we have illustrations from manuscripts of
the Etymologies of Isidore of Seville and the De Proprietatibus
E&rum of Bartolomeus Anglicus and from a French manuscript
roll, written about 1390, which contains a universal history down
to the end of the fourteenth century. The second chapter, on
Elementary Education, has illustrations from an English Primer
almost contemporary with Chaucer, from another in French
belonging to the early fifteenth century, and from a rare fif-
teenth-century manuscript of a work on arithmetic. Higher
Education is represented by the Grammar of Donatus, the
Institutiones Orammaticae of Priscian, a fourteenth-century

8 The Education of Changer, illustrated from the School Books in Use
in his Time, by George A. Plimpton. O.U.P. pp. x + 176. 7$. 6d.

MIDDLE ENGLISH 115

manuscript of Aristotle's Ethics, and manuscripts of works on
mathematics and other subjects. Finally, in a chapter called
'General Beading 5 , Plimpton reproduces pages from scientific
works, from Wycliffe's Bible and a fourteenth-century East
Anglian Vulgate, from some of the most famous medieval books,
such as the Roman de la Hose and De Consolations Philosophiae,
and from medieval manuscripts of the classics. Plimpton ac-
companies these illustrations by a running commentary 3 indicat-
ing the part these books played in the education of the medieval
child and pointing out Chaucer's dependence on or interest in
them wherever possible.

He concludes his book with an Appendix containing several
useful reference lists; for instance, lists of the Biblical and
mythological characters mentioned by Chaucer, of the classical
and medieval authors whose names are mentioned in his
works, and of the theologians and saints to whom he refers by
name.

The book, with its many beautiful reproductions of rare or
interesting manuscripts, should indeed serve, as the author hoped
it might, to make the educational system of the medieval world
a more living thing to students of Chaucer.

The point at issue in Robert A. Pratt's letter, Chaucer and
Boccaccio (T.L.S., Feb, 28), is whether Chaucer could have met
Boccaccio in 1373 when the English poet was in Florence. Pratt
shows that the documentary evidence that has been quoted for
Boccaccio's presence at Certaldo (30 miles from Florence) on
19 March 1373 really refers to 19 March 1374 by our modern
reckoning. It is therefore not certain that Boccaccio was at
Certaldo when Chaucer was in Florence, nor, of course, is it cer-
tain that Chaucer would have visited him if he had been.

Hazel A. Stevenson in A Possible Relation between Chaucer's
Long Lease and the Date of his Birth (M.L.N., May) makes an
over-ingenious suggestion about the period for which Chaucer
(in 1399) leased the house in the garden of Westminster Abbey.
She notes that the rent was just over 53s., and Chaucer himself
was (or probably was) 53 years old at the time, and she suggests
that it amused him to 'add to the coincidence' and lease the
house for 53 years.

116 MIDDLE ENGLISH

Two notes in P.Q. (July) record information about members
of Chaucer's family. In A New Document concerning Robert
CJumcer Harold C. Whitford refers to a document in the Botuli
Scotiae (ed. by D. Macpherson) which mentions Chaucer's
grandfather and which appears to have been overlooked by
investigators into Chaucer's ancestry. The document records
the appointment of Robert Chaucer as co-deputy for the pur-
chase of wine for the use of the king while he was in the north
on the Scottish campaign of I310-11 5 thereby confirming the
view that Robert was a vintner as well as a saddler. It also
mentions Robert's co-deputy, Stephen de Bercote, who was,
Whitford claims, a relative of his by marriage. Whitford
thinks that Stephen de Bercote is 'a name to be reckoned
with in further researches into the ancestry of Geoffrey
Chaucer'.

In A Note on Nicholas Chaucer (P.Q., July) C. R. Thompson
refers to the known records concerning the London merchant
Nicholas Chaucer, probably a relative of Geoffrey, and quotes
three new ones, one in a Letter-Book of the City of London, 1355,
and two in the Close Bolls, 1359 and 1360. It is worth noting
that among the names which appear with Nicholas Chaucer's as
witnesses to the last two documents are those of John Aubrey
(probably a son of Andrew Aubrey who had business relations
with the Chaucers) and of Robert de Strode. Thompson
suggests that this Robert may have been a relative of the
Ralph Strode whom some have identified as the ' philosophical
Strode' ofTroilus, v. 1857.

John M. Manly's recent note on Mary Chaucer's First Hus-
band (cf. The Year's Work, xv. 102) is answered by Russell
Kxauss in John Heyron of Newton Plecy, Somerset (Speculum,
April). Krauss suggests that Manly's note misses the point of
his previous discussion of the identity of Mary Chaucer's first
husband. Krauss did not deny that Mary married a John
Heyron but that she married the John Heyron of Newton Plecy.
Manly apparently thought that this particular John Heyron
was her first husband, but it is quite impossible that he should
have been, for he died in 1326, c at which date Geoffrey's grand-
mother had already been married for three years to Richard
Chaucer, her third husband'.

MIDDLE ENGLISH 117

Several seventeenth.- and eighteenth-century aUusions to
Chaucer, not recorded in Miss Spurgeon's collection, are cited
by^ Dorothy F. Atkinson in References to Chaucer (N. and Q.>
May 4) and in Chaucer Allusions (N. and Q., Aug. 17). In An
Early Allusion to Chaucer? (T.L.S., April 18) Herbert G. Wright
draws attention to the reference to the wrath of Melibeus in
Gilbert Banester's metrical version of Boccaccio's story of
Guiscardo and Ghismonda. The reference may be, as Zupitza
concluded, to Chaucer's Tale of Melibeus; on the other hand
Banester may, of course, have been thinking of the French
Melibde. Another 'Canterbury Tale' (M.L.N., Feb.), by Louis W.
Chappell, records the use of the phrase 'a Canterbury Tale*
(apparently meaning a tall story', or simply, 'a story 5 ) by Col.
William Byrd in the first half of the eighteenth century (cf.
The Westover Manuscripts, 1841, p. 20).

The last Chaucer item to be mentioned is the useful Chaucer
Bibliography 9 compiled by W. E. Martin, which continues the
work of Miss Hammond and D. D. Griffith down to the year
1933. With some slight modifications the classification of the
items is the same as in Griffith's Bibliography, so that it will be
easy to use the two together. Two appendices contain a few
corrections of Griffith's work and a large number of items supple-
menting those in Miss Hammond's Chaucer: A Bibliographical
Manual. Martin's Bibliography covers the ground of Chaucer
scholarship during the specified years with remarkable thorough-
ness and few items of any importance appear to have escaped
his net. Those that he has missed are mostly publications
either of a general kind or mainly concerned with some other
group of medieval writings. Among them the following may be
mentioned as being of value to students of Chaucer: Characters
in Medieval Literature (M.L.N., Jan. 1925) by H. R. Patch;
Medieval Rhetoric and Poetic (1928) by C. S. Baldwin; Seasons
and Months (1933) by E>. Tuve ; and the series of articles by
A. Mel, Trounce entitled The English tail-rhyme romances,
Medium Mmm (1932-4), especially the first article.

9 A Chaucer Bibliography, 1925-1933, by Willard E. Martin, Jr.
C.U.P. and Duke Univ. Press, pp. xii+97. 7s.

118 MIDDLE ENGLISH

Only one study concerned with Grower appears to have been
published this year, an article on Rhetoric in Gower' s To King
Henry the Fourth, in Praise of Peace (S. in Ph., Jan.) by R.
Balfour Daniels. The author first draws attention to an appar-
ent reminiscence of a passage in Geoffrey de Vinsauf J s Poetria
Nova in the play on the name Innocent in the Vox Clamantis,
iii. 955-6. The resemblance between these passages was first
pointed out by Macaulay, but Daniels is able to strengthen the
likelihood that Gower actually had the Poetria Nova in mind
by the discovery of a second passage, thirty lines before the
other, which again seems reminiscent of Geoffrey.

Daniels suggests that Gower made more use of rhetoric than
has been thought and notes that, in spite of his disclaimer in
the Confessio Amantis, viii. 3106-19, there is more than one
example, even in this work, of his use of rhetorical devices.
Indeed, the disclaimer itself may be, like that of Chaucer's eagle
in the Hous of Fame, an instance of irony, 'the permutatio of
the rhetoricians '. In any case, there is no doubt of the rhetorical
influence in the later poem, To King Henry /F, and Daniels
produces some excellent examples of a large number of rhetorical
figures. He notes that though such devices as traductio, con-
tentio, and word play (adnominatio) occur frequently, and Gower
makes much use of the sententia and the exemplum, he is spar-
ing in his use of 'tropes'. In view of the nature of his subject
this is perhaps surprising, for it might have been thought that
it would * call for the grams stilus and the ornatus difficilis rather
than the easy means of ornamentation 5 ; but, as Daniels re-
marks, the real hero of the poem is Christ, and Gower evidently
felt that a simple style was best fitted to express his conception.

With the publication of the fourth part of his edition of Lyd-
gate's Troy Book 10 Henry Bergen brings to a conclusion the great
task which he began more than thirty years ago. The three
preceding volumes (published 1906, 1908, and 1910) contained
the text of the work, and the present volume presents the critical
apparatus arranged in four main sections. The first, headed
Bibliographical Introduction, includes a full description of the

10 Lydgate's Troy Book, Part IV, ed. by Henry Bergen. O.U.P. for
E.E.T.S. pp. viii+572. 15*.

MIDDLE ENGLISH 119

nineteen known manuscripts and of the two early printed edi-
tions of 1513 (Pynson) and 1555 (Thomas Marshe). Thomas
Heywood's modernized version of the Troy Book (1614) is also
described and several extracts from it, including the whole of
the Prologue, are reprinted for comparison with Lydgate's own
work. The discussion of the relationship of the manuscripts
and early printed texts is a brief one, the editor having omitted
most of the variant readings used as evidence, because they have
been already printed in his dissertation on the subject.

The second section, Notes on Guido delle Colonne, contains
over a hundred pages of extracts taken from the earliest printed
text of the Historia Troiana, with footnotes giving variant
readings from the Cologne edition of 1477 and the three four-
teenth-century manuscripts in the British Museum. The running
commentary which accompanies these extracts indicates where
Lydgate amplifies the Historia or adds passages entirely his
own. The actual Notes on Lydgate's Text, which form the
third section, occupy comparatively few pages, and are mostly
explanatory in the simplest sense, that is, they are translations
or paraphrases of difficult passages in the text. There are, how-
ever, some which indicate pronunciations necessary for the
metre and a few on allusions of various kinds and on Lydgate's
use of writers other than Guido. Reminiscences of Chaucer are
sometimes noted, but not always ; for instance, Lydgate's not
uninteresting version of stanza 265 of Book V of Troilus and
Criseyde (cf. Troy Book, iii. 4224 ff .) receives no comment.

The Glossary, which occupies the fourth section, indicates
very folly the various senses in which words are used in this
text, including the phrases and idioms in which they occur.
When a word is used in a sense not recorded in the O.E.D., this
is noted, and also when Lydgate's use of a word or of a particular
meaning antedates the earliest reference given there. In these
ways the glossary forms a valuable addition to our knowledge
of fifteenth-century usage.

V

MIDDLE ENGLISH
II. BEFORE AND AFTER CHAUCER

By MABY S. SEBJEAJSTTSON

FOE the year 1935 there are no such exciting discoveries to
report as there were in 1934. The work of the year shows very
varied interests ; the medieval lyric has perhaps received the
greatest share of attention. In this direction R. L. Greene's
work on the Carol deserves note, as also the fact that a number
of lyrics have this year been printed for the first time, or are
now made easily accessible. Notices of useful editions of some
important Middle English poems will be found below, as well
as of a new translation of Piers Plowman, and of an edition of
the Peniarth copy of the Play of Antichrist.

In the present chapter the following order has been adopted:
works of general interest ; works on individual poems not falling
into any general group ; books and articles on Langland ; the
lyric; romances, and all writings on 'the matter of Britain';
chronicles in verse and prose ; other prose, early and late ; plays.
The chapter finally deals with editions of and critical work on
Middle English writings of social, historical, and technical,
rather than literary, interest.

The most ambitious work of the year has been the fine repro-
duction of the Canterbury Psalter, 1 with a long and valuable
introduction by the late M. R, James on the texts and illustra-
tions and innumerable matters arising therefrom. It is now
generally agreed that this Psalter was produced in the mid-
twelfth century possibly in 1145 or soon after and that
Eadwine's work was based on the Utrecht Psalter. The present
volume is an important addition to the number of excellent
facsimile reproductions which have appeared within the last
decade.

1 The Canterbury Psalter: A Reproduction, with Introduction by
M. R. James. Lund, Humphries. 6 6s.

MIDDLE ENGLISH 121

A note on the date of the Canterbury Psalter by H. Hidde-
jnann appears in Geistige Arbeit (n. ii).

We welcome the latest supplement (the sixth) 2 of J. E. Wells's
invaluable Manual of Writings in Middle English. The new
volume includes additions and modifications up to July 1935.
The arrangement follows that of previous volumes, and the new
matter is very considerable. We note with much interest the
editor's hope that his bibliography of fifteenth-century writings
in English will appear before long.

It is pleasant to find that the 1935 volume of P.M.L.A. is
dedicated to Carleton Brown, e on the occasion of his twenty-
fifth anniversary as Professor of English 5 . The December issue
contains a bibliography of the writings of this scholar who has
done so much for the study of Middle English.

An important work on Alliterative Poetry in Middle English
is J. P. Oakden's book with this title. 3 It is a companion to an
earlier volume by the same author a study devoted chiefly
to the metre and dialect of Middle English alliterative verse
(see The Year's Work, xi. 92-6). The present work treats of
its vocabulary, phraseology, and style, and gives some account
of the Early Middle English alliterative poetry and prose; also,
at greater length, of the poems of the alliterative revival,
classifying these under the headings of c epic j chronicles,
romances, satire and allegory, religious poetry, and miscel-
laneous later works. Oakden describes the character and sub-
ject-matter of each individual work, and in some instances he
usefully summarizes and discusses various critical theories and
recent investigations, as, for instance, in the case of Winner and
Waster and of Pearl. (In the latter he makes no mention of
Wellek's recent article; see The Year's Work, xv. 112-14,)
The fifth chapter contains a general review of c the rise of the

2 Sixth Supplement to a Manual of the Writings in Middle English,
1060-1400, by J. E. Wells. New Haven: Connecticut Academy and
Yale Univ. Press, pp. 1437-1549. 6*. Gd.

8 Alliterative Poetry in Middle English: a Survey of the Traditions,
by J. P. Oakden, with assistance from Elizabeth R. Innes. Manchester
Univ. Press, pp. x+403. 20s.

122 MIDDLE ENGLISH

[alliterative] school, its divisions, its acMevements, and subse-
quent decay'. The author traces the continuous tradition from
Old English to the fourteenth-century revival, when ' a renewed
poetic vitality and inspiration 5 showed itself; this he ascribes
to the stimulus of French poetry. 'The wit and brilliance of
the French', however, 'made no appeal to the writers. . . . The
heroic spirit, the high seriousness which came to them so
naturally, found its only suitable embodiment in alliterative
verse.' Oakden is inclined to accept the hypothesis of J. R.
Hulbert that the revival took place in the cultural setting of
a circle of baronial families in opposition to the court. He
stresses the importance of the common poetic diction evolved
by this group of writers, but he comes to the conclusion that
'except in the case of the Gawain poet no distinctive style is
evolved, and the literary inspiration behind the Revival died
before the point of maturity was ever reached'.

The second and larger part of this work analyses the vocabu-
lary and the alliterative phrases of the Middle English alliterative
revival; it includes also a considerable section on alliterative
phrases in Old English verse and prose which, valuable as it
is, seems somewhat out of place here. It is impossible to sum-
marize this large and interesting collection of material, but it
may be said that the result of this investigation is to strengthen
the idea of an unbroken literary development from Old English
to Middle English. A striking feature of the vocabulary is the
large number of nominal compounds: 880 in the unrhymed
alliterative verse. A comparative study of the alliterative
phrases in non-alliterative poems is included, and the volume
ends with two short chapters on some stylistic features : on the
use of ' tags *, on the absolute use of the adjective, and so forth.

Mediaeval Literature and the Comparative Method is the title
of a brief essay by A, H. Krappe (Speculum, July), who
emphasizes the importance of what he would prefer to call the
* inductive 3 study of the themes and c motives' of medieval
fiction, and comments on the undeserved neglect and mistrust
of this method in Anglo-Saxon countries. He gives a number of
examples of the interpretation and illumination of medieval
stories by comparison with parallel tales, and discusses some

MIDDLE ENGLISH 123

of the ways in which, tales from the popular, oral, traditions
may be modified in literary traditions.

Glastonbury Abbey and the Fusing of English Literary Culture
is the subject of an interesting article by Clark H. Slover
(Speculum, Apr.). Standing as it does c on the borders of British
territory, ruled successively by British, Anglo-Saxon, and
Norman lords', the Abbey Constituted for many years an
international clearing-house of culture'. Slover expands and
explains this statement by tracing the early history of the
Abbey and its abbots, showing its ecclesiastical relations with
Ireland, Wales, Northumbria, and the rest of England, and with
social and political life in Norman times, until 'during the
period which marks the beginning of imaginative literary pro-
duction, namely the twelfth century, Glastonbury Abbey was
in the very center of English affairs', political and intellectual,
and able 'to place at the disposal of Anglo-Norman writers a
culture that had been gradually gathered and then preserved
and fused through six centuries of close contact with the
diverse national elements of Britain'.

c lt is safe to say that wherever there were good books in the
Middle Ages there too could be found a copy of one or another
of the works of Boethius.' H. R. Patch 4 has done the student
a service in preparing a short but scholarly and readable
account of the influence of this sixth-century scholar on whose
tomb was inscribed : c Ecce Boetius celo magnus | et omni mundo
mirificandus homo.' The story is a remarkable one, and though
for the most part the author 'has tried to keep to what, if not at
least well established, may be regarded as generally acceptable ',
there is a considerable amount of original matter in, as well
as of originality in the presentation of, the book. Beginning
with a short account of the few known facts of the life of
Boethius, Patch then proceeds to give an interesting survey
of the traditions which became attached to his name. The
second chapter describes the wide distribution of manuscripts

4 The Tradition of BoetMus: A Study of hi$ Importance in Medieval
Culture, by Howard RoUin Patch. New York: O.U.P. pp. viii+200.
10*. U.

124 MIDDLE ENGLISH

of BoetMus, the use made by medieval scholars of his works,
and Ms- influence in dialectic, in arithmetic, in music, in
geometry, in scholastic controversies, and especially in philo-
sophy, showing how he transmitted to the Middle Ages 'not
only something of Aristotle's Metaphysics, but also a good deal
of Plato's Timaeus '. The Gonsolatio is dealt with at some length,
in particular its central problem: c chance in its relation to God
and Divine foresight, and in relation to man and his longings
to shape his own destiny \ which Boethius solves by the belief
'that Fate or chance all that is apparently casual and change-
able is in the last analysis under the control of a rational God '.

The translations of the Gonsolatio are then noticed, reference
being made to versions in English, German, French, Anglo-
Norman, Provengal, Italian, Spanish, Catalan, Flemish, Dutch,
Greek, Hebrew, Hungarian, Polish. A few of the more im-
portant western European versions are treated more fully,
notably that of Notker Labeo of St. Gall in German, and, in
English, those of King Alfred, Chaucer, John Walton, George
Colville, Sir Thomas Chaloner, Queen Elizabeth, and the trans-
lation which appeared in 1609, ascribed to e l. T.' (Patch accepts
the suggestion that this last was the work of Michael Walpole.)
The fourth chapter describes the permeation of medieval
literature of western Europe (both in Latin and in some of the
vernaculars) by the thought and outlook of the Consolatio, and
the account is continued for England into the early part of the
Renaissance period.

The writer provides a considerable bibliography, and a series
of notes gives many other bibliographical references bearing
on individual points in the text. There is an index, and the
book is illustrated by seven plates reproduced from miniatures
in manuscripts of Boethius or his followers.

Mary Frances Smith has produced a doctoral dissertation 5
which seeks c to show the variety and nature of the concepts
of wisdom expressed by [M.E.] authors '. Beginning with a brief
study of the phases, qualities, personifications, and symbols

6 Wisdom and Personification of Wisdom occurring in Middle English
Literature before 1500, by Mary Frances Smith. Washington, D.C. :
Catholic Univ. of America, pp. xi+199.

MIDDLE ENGLISH 125

of wisdom which appear in the Bible, she proceeds to make
clear by many quotations and references how these concepts
are severally reflected in the Middle English writings of many
kinds, and re-emphasizes the prevailing Biblical knowledge of
the period. The writer divides the subject into four categories:
worldly wisdom (including both prudence and cunning), pro-
phetic wisdom (including saints, sibyls, and other visionaries),
the wisdom of folly, and divine wisdom (particularly as revealed
in the Second Person of the Trinity).

The English outlaw-tradition has been the subject of a study
by J. de Lange, 6 who sets out to investigate 'the points of
contact between the English and Icelandic matter, and the
historical, social, and traditional currents, by which the out-
law-traditions in both countries have been influenced. To see,
furthermore, whether the two developments have influenced
each, other directly or whether their similarity is due to a
common source. ' He discusses first in some detail the Tale of
Gamelyn and the traditions of Hereward and Robin Hood.
In regard to the latter it may be mentioned that he has over-
looked a 'Robin Hood 5 place-name of the earlier fourteenth
century (see A. H. Smith, M.L.R. xxvii), which argues against
some of his conclusions concerning dates. The character of
Robin Hood himself de Lange takes to be entirely imaginative
in origin, and in no sense historical or political. Two other
outlaw-themes are next examined, the tales of Fulk FitzWarin
and Eustache the Monk, which he shows by parallelism of
detail and episode to be also of English origin, and which help
to build up his idea of the essential characteristics of the
outlaw-hero: ' bodily strength, cunning, and courage'. De
Lange then turns to the Icelandic tradition, analyses some of
the Icelandic outlaw-tales (including that of Grettir), and
traces some common elements in these and the English tales.
But the chief link between the English and Icelandic outlaw-
matter is the saga of An bogsveigir, the elements of which de
Lange traces back to pre-Icelandic times, suggesting a common
ultimate source in Norway for the English and Icelandic tales.

6 The Relation and Development of English and Icelandic Outlaw-
traditions, by J. de Lange. Haarlem: Will ink and Zoon. pp. 138. /. 3*

126 MIDDLE ENGLISH

Turning now to individual poems, and taking these in
approximately chronological order, we come to the Ormulum.
The Riddle of the Ormulum (P.Q,, July) is dealt with by H. B.
Hinckley, who 'is concerned to show that the Ormulum, or at
least the Dedication of it, was written between 1130 and 1140;
and to re-examine the generally discarded theory . . . that it
was written at Carlisle'. His theory is based on the evidence,
as he reads it, of palaeography, language, and local history.
He dates the handwriting of the manuscript about 1130-6 ; the
language, he states, must be dated before 1150; in neither case
are Ms arguments very satisfactory. He quotes, as an illustra-
tion of the Cumberland dialect, a thirteenth-century copy
(obviously Southern) of Gospatric's Charter of the eleventh
century, but admits 'that the linguistic resemblance between
Charter and Ormulum are not impressive'. On the whole, the
paper does not carry the argument very far.

Continuing his important studies on Orm, H. C. Matthes deals
once more with the problem of Qudlenauswertung und Quellen-
berufung im Orrmulum (Anglia, lix), in which he restates his
position, and adduces more evidence to support his arguments.
This article is in part, and one in Anglia Beiblatt (Apr.), Zum
literarischen Character und zu den Quetten des Ormulum, is
wholly, a refutation of the arguments put forward by H. Glunz
against the theories of Matthes expressed in his work Zur
Einheitlicklceit des Orrmulum (see The Year's Work, xiv. 145-8).
The discussion is continued by Glunz in Zur Orrmulumfrage,
also in Anglia Beiblatt (June).

G. Linke has added to the small number of full glossaries of
Middle English texts by issuing a concordance to Genesis and
Exodus. 1 The compiler prefers facts to explanation or comment,
even when these might be particularly helpful. He finds 1,955
words in the vocabulary of the poem, of which he reckons
13-7 per cent, are of foreign origin: Scandinavian 16*5 per cent.,
French 6-1 per cent., Low-German 0-5 per cent., Latin 0-2
per cent. Of significant words he finds that 1,057 were already

7 Der Wortechatz des mittelenglischen Epos Genesis und Exodus mit
grammatischer Einleitung 9 *by Gerhard Linke. (Palaestra, 197.) Leipzig:
Mayer and Miiller. pp. 165. BM. 4.80.

MIDDLE ENGLISH 127

established in earlier English religious literature, while 603
appear to be peculiar to Genesis and Exodus. The glossary is
printed in the same type throughout; this, with the great
number of abbreviations which this method of printing empha-
sizes, is trying to the eyes. It is to be regretted that all the
Old English words are given in their West-Saxon form, which
in many cases obviously could not be the ancestor of the
Genesis and Exodus form. The author indicates whether the
words occur in certain other Middle English texts of the first
half of the thirteenth century: the Ormulum, the Katherine
Group, the Ancren Eiwle, the O.E. Homilies, and the Bestiary,
the last three only in so far as their vocabularies have been
recorded by Stratmann and Matzner. The monograph contains
a very brief sketch of the phonology and of the inflexions of the
poem, for the most part only treating of those points which can
be illustrated by rhymes. There is also a summarized com-
parison with the dialect of Robert of Brunne, which Linke finds
slightly but definitely more northerly.

The long-awaited E.E.T.S. edition of The Owl and the Nightin-
gale* has now appeared, and the very careful diplomatic repro-
duction of the two manuscripts of the text will be heartily
welcomed. The edition was planned, and the text prepared, by
the late G. F. EL Sykes more than a quarter of a century ago,
but in view of the fact that two critical texts have made their
appearance since then, the present editor judged it more useful
to print a parallel-text edition which should be as near to the
manuscripts as printing would allow. The manuscript word-
division, punctuation, and accentuation have all been kept,
and indication is given of the spacing of the manuscripts, as
well as of the varying forms of individual letters. The ordinary
Middle English contractions have been expanded, however,
those which are less common being retained. The text is well
supplied with footnotes on points of palaeography, and many
problems of interpretation are discussed in the interesting notes
at the end of the volume. The introduction gives details of the
method of editing the text; it also contains notes on some

8 The Owl and the Nightingale, ed. by J. H. G. Grattan and G. F. H.
Sykes. (E.E.T.S., E.S. oxlx.) O.TJ.P. pp. xxiv+94. 15*.

128 MIDDLE ENGLISH

palaeographical features (e.g. on the interchange of thorn and
wen, and on word-division), on the manuscripts and their
pedigree, on the dialect (which the editor accepts as being that
of Surrey, both originally and in the extant form of the text),
on the 'occasion and date of composition of the poem', and on
the authorship. These last two problems the editor leaves un-
solved. A bibliography is given, containing chiefly books and
articles not included in Atkins's bibliography, and a glossarial
index is also supplied.

In A Middle English Paraphrase of John of Hoveden's 'Philo-
mena' and the Text of his ' Viola' (M.L.R., July) F. J. E. Raby
shows that the poem Philomena (ed. by Clemens Blume, Leipzig,
1930) is the source of the Meditations on the Life and Passion
of Christ (ed. by C. D'Evelyn, E.E.T.S., 1921). 'This trans-
lation is a witness to Hoveden's influence in the fourteenth
century, and affords evidence in support of the contention that
he is a link between the Bernardine-Eranciscan movement
and the great English mystical movement of the fourteenth
century/ In the same article Raby prints the text of another
poem by Hoveden a remarkable and ingenious hymn to the
Blessed Virgin, consisting of two hundred and fifty rhymed
lines, in which each rhyme is repeated for fifty consecutive
lines.

The PricJce of Conscience: A Collation of M88. Galba E IX
and Barley 4196 is the title of a short article (Leeds Studies in
English, No. 4), in which J. Lightbown corrects from the manu-
scripts R. Morris's text (Philological Soc., 1863), which was
printed from Galba with deficiencies made up from Harley.
The corrections are mostly of a minor character, but are none
the less welcome.

Bruce Dickins (T.L.S., Dec. 14) explains and justifies the
reading Put(t)idew in The Flyting ofDunbar and Kennedy, v. 189,
as in the Chapman and Myllar and Maitland texts, in place of
the Pettedew of the Bannatyne manuscript.

The next paragraphs deal with the year's work on Piers
Plowman.
It is to be hoped that a version of Piers Plowman in readable

MIDDLE ENGLISH 129

Modern English will make many free of 'the field fall of folk 3
whose apparent difficulties of diction have been a barrier to the
ordinary reader. Henry W. Wells's translation 9 attempts to
give us the rhythm and alliteration of the original, and usually
succeeds in avoiding the use of obsolete words merely for the
sake of alliteration. On the other hand, the translator some-
times wisely employs an obsolete or obsolescent word for a
disused object or practice in preference to substituting a defini-
tion (e.g. cocket or derematyn bread). Some will regret the con-
flation of all three texts to produce a version which, though it
may not omit any of the finest points of A or B or C, is not what
the poet designed or wrote. Though individual details of trans-
lation might be questioned, and one wonders why certain words
or phrases of the original were taken and others left, and why
some notes were added where there is little difficulty while some
real difficulties are not explained, Wells has done a hard task
well and deserves our thanks. Nevill Coghill contributes a short
introduction with a sketch of the (probable) course of Lang-
land's life, and an account of the allegorical meanings of the
poem.

In a somewhat captious article entitled The Langland Myth
(P.M.L.A., March) Oscar Cargill contends that the author of
Piers Plowman was not called William Langland, and offers
an explanation of the note in the Dublin MS. on 'Stacy de
Rokayle pater Willielmi de Longlond 3 . How did this note get
into the manuscript, and how far is its evidence dependable ?
Cargill quotes the two lines (B xx. 220-1) on the mansed prest
of pe march of yrlonde, which he believes 'were aimed at a
specific individual', whom he identifies with a certain Walter
de Brugge, parson of Trim and prebendary of Howth, whose
character would seem to have fitted the passage in the poem,
and who in his will, dated 1396, left to a priest of his parish
c unum librum vocatum Pers Plowman'. Cargill conjectures
that de Brugge heard he had been attacked in this poem,
sent for a copy, and made inquiries about the author. This

9 The Vision of Piers Plowman, by William Langland, newly rendered
into Modern English by H. W. Wells. Sheed and Ward. pp. xxix+ 304.
8*. Qd.

2762.16 T

130 MIDDLE ENGLISH

copy might be tlie one now in Trinity College, Dublin ; the note
on the authorship may have been inserted by de Brugge himself,
and may possibly represent a conflation of two reports on the
identity of the writer, Cargill rejects the theory that William
Langland was an illegitimate son of Stacy de Rokayle, chiefly
on account of the poet's harshness in speaking of illegitimacy.
He proceeds to show how in his opinion the c Langland myth 5
originated and developed, discussing the entries in manuscripts
and in Bale's Note-book and Catalogue. The last part of the
article investigates the theory which takes the author of Piers
Plowman to be a son of Stacy de Rokele ; he adduces forty-three
entries in medieval records which show that there was a William
Rokayle or Rokele, or more than one, in the fourteenth century.
A number of these items connect the Rokele family with East
Anglia, with which the family of But was also connected
(Cargill points out incidentally that one MS., Rawl. Poet. 38,
was in the possession of 'William Buttes 5 in the early sixteenth
century), and, the writer believes, some of them show at least
a possibility that William de (la) Rokele came into contact with
such people as Thomas Brunton, Bishop of Rochester, and the
above-mentioned Walter de Brugge. The suggestions or hints
afforded by the records are of a very general character, but
further discoveries about the family of Rokele might tend to
support the theories here considered.

The Bishop of Rochester just mentioned is particularly
interesting to the student of Piers Plowman, since one of his
sermons is claimed to have been the source of Langland's use
of the fable of the rat-parliament. Eleanor H. Kellogg in
Bishop Brunton and the Fable of the Rats (PM.L.A., Mar.)
produces a considerable body of evidence from the manuscript
arrangement of Brunton's extant sermons to support the
belief of F. A. Gasquet that the date of this sermon was 1376.
Miss Kellogg gives reasons for placing the rat-sermon on the
fifth Sunday after Easter, May 18, in that year. She, however,
disagrees with G. R. Owst's suggestion that Brunton is to be
regarded as the prototype of the 'angel of heuene* who spoke
'in the eyre on heigh' in the B-text prologue, an identification
which Cargill, in the article dealt with above, accepts without
hesitation.

MIDDLE ENGLISH 131

S. B. James's book Back to Langland 10 is another attempt to
present Piers Plowman to the modern reader, but since it is
primarily addressed to those who do not know ' this neglected
poet ' it must not detain us. James represents Langland as the
typical Englishman, Piers as the ideal peasant 'Christ in an
English dress ' and feels that a return to Langland's outlook,
especially in so far as he embodies Hhe spiritual unity of the
English people at the very moment when religion in England
stood at the parting of the ways', might well be the salvation
of a shaken world.

Again in the Dublin Review (Jan.-Mar.) the same writer
considers The Neglect of Langland by the non-specialized public,
and emphasizes the importance of his ideas for the modern age.

A monograph by Heinrich Wiehe 11 examines the attitude of
Langland towards the various social classes and conceptions
of his day: the king, the nobility, the knights, the clergy, the
law, industry and commerce, the commons and the labouring
classes, and studies also Langland's own spiritual outlook. He
stresses Langland's position as a conservative reformer, as
opposed to a revolutionary reformer, and believes that the
actual influence and effect of the poem on the social unrest
of the day were due to the adoption and repetition by the
leaders of unrest of single lines and passages and ideas from
the poem separated from their context.

Nevill CoghilTs Two Notes on Piers Plowman (Med.
June) deal with "The Abbot of Abingdon and the Date of the
C Text' and with 'Chaucer's Debt to Langland'. The first
offers an interpretation of the passage beginning Ac there shal
come a Tcyng and ending Ac Dowel shal dyngen hym adoune. &
destruyen his my$te (B x. 317-30), particularly vv. 321-2 and
329-30 ; the first of these groups he believes to be corrupt, and
his explanation of the passage depends on some additions, but
is 'consistent with its general meaning 5 . In the last two lines
Coghill identifies the king with Christ at the Second Advent,
and Cayme with Anti-Christ ; the Abbot of Abingdon is 'simply

10 Back to Langland, by Stanley B. James. Sands, pp. 167. 3*. Qd.

11 Piers Plowman und die sozialen Fragen seiner Zeit, by H. Wiehe.
(Miinster diss.) pp. 73.

132 MIDDLE ENGLISH

any abbot who is lax in the government of his abbey ; the place
Abingdon was chosen fortuitously ; it had a well-known abbey,
and first-rate alliterative possibilities'. Langland was being only
vaguely prophetic here; the passage was not intended as an
exact prediction, and the fact that later events seemed to fulfil
a prophecy in these lines was merely coincidence. The C Text
change from the Abbot of Abingdon to the Abbot of Englonde
seems to Coghill to fix the date of this text to the year 1394,
when the tenants of the Abbot of Abingdon did actually rise
against him, and Langland, to avoid a possibly dangerous
topical allusion, altered the wording of the passage.

CoghilTs second note gives a number of reasons and quotes a
number of passages which suggest that Chaucer was acquainted
with Piers Plowman, and was influenced by its ideas and
characters, particularly in the person of the Plowman himself.

We have an important addition to the literature of the
medieval lyric in R. L. Greene's anthology of, and long intro-
ductory essay on, the Carol. 12 He bases his selection on 'the
basis, not of their subject-matter, but of their metrical form.
They include only poems intended, or at least suitable, for
singing, made up of uniform stanzas and provided with a burden
which begins the piece and is to be repeated after each stanza. *
The collection comprises all carols extant down to 1550, when
the type seems to have become rather suddenly obsolescent or
obsolete. Pour hundred and seventy-four poems are here
printed, with textual, bibliographical, and explanatory notes,
with references to such musical settings as have survived. The
carols are classified by running head-lines, which allow for
some overlapping, into Carols of the Nativity, of the Epiphany,
Lullaby Carols, Carols of Doomsday, Picaresque Carols, &c.
The introduction begins with a justification of the author's
definition of a carol, comparing it with other lyric forms (some
of dance-song origin) such as the balade and virelai, in connexion
with which it is not infrequently mentioned in English and
French literature. The writer then proceeds to consider its
origin and relations (e.g. the German Beierilied), tracing the

12 The Early English Carols, ed. by Richard Leighton Greene. O.U.P.
pp. cxlv+461. 305.

MIDDLE ENGLISH 133

probable influence of dance-rhythm on the form, and the
probable manner of the performance of the carol in its early
days. A chapter on the Latin background indicates the in-
fluence of the Latin Hymns and Proses on subject-matter and
on the form of the stanza, and succeeding chapters treat of
various aspects of the type : the carol as popular song (in which
it is contrasted with the ballad), the carol in relation to popular
religion with an account of the writing of religious lyrics on the
pattern of secular lyrics, partly as a deliberate effort on the
part of the Church to reform and sanctify popular merry-
makings which tended to attach themselves to Church festivals,
and the special connexion of the carol with the Franciscans.
The last chapter deals with the burden, as the distinctive feature
of this genre, based ultimately on choral repetition, not so
bound up with the body of any one poem that it cannot be
transferred to another, but having at least a general tendency to
sound the key-note of the stanzas which it accompanies. The
number of poems in the regular form of burden+stanza which
Greene has assembled is a little surprising, and they are of a
remarkable variety, though the majority of them are religious
in character. It may be noticed that rather more than a quarter
of the whole number are associated with the Christmas and
New Year season, a proportion which Greene attributes to the
importance of this period as a time of popular rejoicing the
response of the carol-writers to the challenge which the popular
Christmas customs presented to their special veneration for
the season 5 .

Under the heading Mittelenglisctie Marienstunden Karl
Brunner publishes in Xing. Stud. (Apr.) a sixteenth-century
copy (from MS. Arundel 285, ff. 141 v., 142 r.) of a/Middle English
rhymed poem in thirty-six lines on the Seven Sorrows of Our
Lady, arranged for the daily Offices. The poem, which is, at
least in its present form, in a northern dialect, is closely related
to certain versions of the Patris Sapientia. Some of the
rhymes are interesting (e.g. hert: part; tre: Mary), but do not
afford evidence as to the original dialect of the poem. It has
not before been printed.

The same writer has also (Eng. Stud., Aug.) edited Zwei

134 MIDDLE ENGLISH

Gedichte aus der Handschrift Trinity College, Cambridge, 323
(B. 14.39), with introduction and notes on the text. The manu-
script (which contains one of the copies of the Proverbs of
Alfred) has been previously described ; it is of the first half of
the thirteenth century. Of the two poems here printed, only
a few stanzas of the second have appeared before. The first,
which consists of 132 lines in short couplets, is a set of para-
phrases of biblical texts and passages from theological treatises ;
the second, 344 seven-stress lines in quatrains, mostly rhyming
a a a a y gives a brief account of some episodes of Old and New
Testament history and of a few of the martyrs. The poem is
followed by five lines containing an invocation to St. Cuthbert,
and a note on the date of Easter. An analysis of the dialect
leads the editor to place the poem 'im Sudwesten Englands,
wenn auch vielleicht nicht direkt im westsachsischen Gebiet'.
The qualifying clause certainly seems necessary in view of
such forms as man, stont; heren, &c.

Under the title Verstreute me. und friihne. Lyrik, Karl
Hammerle (Archiv, Jan.) edits two Middle English 0- and
I-poems, a fifteenth-century poem on St. George, arranged for
the canonical hours, and two later lyrics, one a schoolboy's
song, the other a Christmas carol. The first of the five is a
fragment of sixty-nine lines on the Crucifixion, preserved in
MS. Ashmole 41, and belongs to the end of the fourteenth
century; it is in seven-stress lines, in stanzas of six lines,
rhyming a a a a b b ; the style resembles that of the school of
Richard Bolle. The second, with the same metrical form as the
first, consists of twenty-four lines in a fifteenth-century MS.
(Oxford, Univ. Coll. 33), and is a didactic poem beginning
While pu hast gode and getest gode. for gode pu mi$t beholde ;
the first stanza is represented by another version in the c Ban-
natyne manuscript '. Poem III is in a hand of the later fifteenth
century in a manuscript in the Bodleian library (e Musaeo 35).
Except for the Hours of Our Lady dealt with above, this poem
is the only example in ME. of devotions to the saints arranged
for the daily Offices. The eighty-four lines are in quatrains of
seven-stress lines rhyming a a a a. It is of northern origin.

The last two poems are from a manuscript (B.M. Addit.

MIDDLE ENGLISH 135

14997) of the late fifteenth or early sixteenth century, the chief
contents of which are Welsh poems. The schoolboy's song is
a macaronic poem of five couplets, beginning!

On days when J am callit to J?e scole da matre et matertera
Then my hert begynnys to cole languescunt mentes viscera.

The carol, apart from the refrain Hay ay hay ay make we mere
as we may, consists of five quatrains, beginning Now ys jole
comyn with gentyll chere. This is included in Greene's collection
discussed above.

Karl Brunner prints with comments in the same number of
Archiv the text of five hitherto unpublished Mittehnglische
Todesgedichte, from manuscripts of the fifteenth century. The
first is a translation (in MS. Cotton Faustina B vi, and in two
other MSS.) of three of the Latin Vado mori distichs. The second
is a sixteen-line Dispute concerning the Soul of the Dead, from
the same manuscript. The third is an allegory of the Life of Man,
and is found in MS. B.M. Addit. 37049; it contains eighteen
complete couplets and parts of three others. The fourth is a
Warning of Death, in twelve stanzas in rhyme-royal in the same
manuscript. The last is a Dispute between Worms and a Corpse,
also in rhyme-royal, thirty-one stanzas and ten introductory
lines, from the same manuscript. All these poems are illustrated,
or serve as descriptions or explanations of pictures.

The Antiquaries Journal (Jan.) publishes the text of Two
Medieval Love-Songs set to Music, one of which was discovered
by John Saltmarsh, the present editor, in the Muniment Room
of King's College, Cambridge ; the other is from a manuscript
in the Public Record Office. The first consists of three four-lined
verses, rhyming a b a 6, beginning* bryd one brere, brid, brid
one brere. It is written, with its musical setting, on the back of
a contemporary copy of a Papal Bull, dated 1199, dealing with
a matter concerning the Priory of St. James by Exeter, the
property of which was granted to King's College at the Dissolu-
tion. The editor gives the date of the handwriting as fourteenth
century probably within the first thirty years. The dialect is
probably Midland. The second lyric consists of seven three-
line stanzas with a two-line refrain which stands at the head
of the poem (i.e. in carol-form) : Alone I lyue, alone, and sore I

136 MIDDLE ENGLISH

ayghe for one. It is written, again with, the musical setting, ( on
the back of an official document: the draft findings of an
inquiry into a riot, held in the summer of 1457'. The hand-
writing of the lyric, however, is of about the middle of the reign
of Henry VIII ; the music points to the same period.

The editor gives a full description of text, language, and style
of both, lyrics, and a facsimile of the text and music of each, is
also given. F. McD. C. Turner adds a note on, and transcribes
the music of, Bryd one Brere, and E. J. Dent does the same for
Alone I Lyue.

In Anglia, lix. 319-21, Ferdinand Holthausen prints a criti-
cal text of JEin mittdenglisches Gedicht uber die Funf Freuden
Marias, first published in the same periodical (vol. xxx) by
W. Heuser. The poem consists of five eight-line stanzas,
rhyming ababbcbc. Immediately following it in the manu-
script is a stanza of six lines which, may or may not belong to
it ; this stanza, is an acrostic, the six initial letters forming the
word Pipwel, the name (now Pipewell) of a Cistercian monastery
in Northamptonshire.

In the same number, Karl Brunner produces for the first time
Ein typisches Bufigedicht aus dem fiinfzehnten JahrJiundert. The
text consists of fifteen seven-line stanzas, a b a b b c c. It is
extant in two manuscripts : H M 501 in the Huntington Library,
and Gg 4.31 in the Cambridge University Library, where it is
called A goodly preaer. The former provides the better text,
and is the basis of the present edition ; the variants of the other
manuscripts are given in footnotes.

Bruce DicMns prints (Leeds Studies in English, 4) two
Worcester Fragments of the Middle English Secular Lyric not
previously published in any Middle English anthology, or noted
by Wells. One is from Worcester Cathedral MS. F. 64, f. 68
(thirteenth century), written as prose but forming three lines
of verse ; the other from MS. Q. 50, f. 46 r,, six lines, which should
probably be arranged metrically in ten lines; this begins Ne
saltou neuer, leuedi, TuynTden wyt pin eyen. The part of the
manuscript in which this item occurs is of 1270-80. Dickins
adds notes on the poem, which contains some interesting forms
and rhymes (e.g. ofte: a-bout, = aboht).

MIDDLE ENGLISH 137

Writing on The Date of the Early English Translation of the
'CandetNudatumPectus 5 (Med. JEv., June) S. Harrison Thomson
shows that there are 'two completely distinct translations of
the Candet : one in four lines, current in at least three recensions
and perhaps four by the middle of the thirteenth century * (three
of the texts are printed hy Carleton Brown in Religious Lyrics
of the Fourteenth Century), c the second, in six lines, in two recen-
sions, at least a quarter of a century later', found in MS. Digby
55 (and printed here) and in B.M. Addit. 11579. Thompson
discusses the palaeographical and other evidence afforded by
the Durham and Bodleian manuscripts of the earlier transla-
tion, and suggests that it was produced 'somewhere in the
region of Leicestershire or Lincolnshire . . . towards the end of
the first third of the thirteenth century '.

'The Question ofHalsam* is the title given in one manuscript
(B.M. Addit. 34360) to a lyric consisting of one stanza in rhyme-
royal, which, together with another single-stanza lyric, is the
subject of an article by Helen Pennock South (P.M.L.A., June).
Both poems are to be found in a number of manuscripts, either
alone or together. They have at various times been considered
to be the work of Lydgate, though certain of the manuscripts
have notes ascribing them to Halsam Squiere or Halsham
Esquyer. Miss South now proposes to identify this Halsam
with 'Johannes Halsham, armiger', whose inquisition post
mortem is recorded in the third year of Henry V (1415), and who
died seised of lands in Sussex, Kent, Norfolk, and Wiltshire.
She has amassed a considerable amount of detail concerning
his life ; as she admits, there is no proof or even suggestion that
he was a poet, though his character, standing, and local con-
nexions make the ascription of these two lyrics to him not
unjustifiable.

A. S. C. Ross has re-edited The Middle English Poem on the
Names of a Hare (Proc. of Leeds Philos. arid Lit. 800. m. vi) from
MS. Digby 86. This curious production, apparently of the late
thirteenth century, ( contains a ritual to be observed on meeting
a hare and the central 44 lines (vv. 11-54) consist of 77 terms
of abuse which are to be applied to it. The majority of these
are airoJ; Aeyojuera and very obscure/ These terms and matters

138 MIDDLE ENGLISH

of interest arising from them and other words in the poem are
very fully annotated. For comparison Ross prints, with a
modern rendering., a fourteenth-century Welsh poem on the
hare: Dafydd ap Gwilym's CywydA yr Ysgyfarnog.

In a note on The Rhyme-Schemes in MS. Douce 302, 53 and 54,
Bruce Dickins (Proc. of Leeds Philos. and Lit. Soc. n. viii)
suggests a number of emendations for two of the poems (Nos*
53 and 54) which appear among the writings of John Audelay
in MS. Douce 302. The poems in question ' are to be assigned
to an area a good deal further north than Audelay's Shropshire '.
They are rhymed and also partly alliterative. The metrical
scheme is highly elaborate, and in the text as now extant it
appears to break down in about twenty places. Dickins believes
"that in almost every instance the reasonable assumption that
the poet was capable of carrying it through with consistency
gives a reading which not merely restores the metrical scheme
but often improves the sense'. Acting on this assumption, he
then proposes emendations in sixteen of the apparently faulty
lines.

Kemp Malone in E.L.H. (Apr.) supplies a number of com-
ments on the text and additions to the Glossary of Carleton
Brown's English Lyrics of the XHIth Century.

The next group to be considered is that of the Romances. In
a note on Havelock 64-6 Bruce Dickins (Leeds Studies in English,
4) has a new suggestion to make on the lines

Was non so bold lond to rome
Bat durst upon his bringhe
Hunger ne here wicke J?inghe.

He supports the manuscript-reading hunger ne here as c a tradi-
tional alliterative phrase' (often here and hunger, &c.) of Old
and Middle English, citing illustrations of its use from the
Lambeth Homilies, Owl and Nightingale, and Arthour and Merlin,
and translates v. 66 as ' famine nor devastation evil things',
He accepts Sir William Craigie's emendation of lond to loueid,
now usually adopted, but in the obviously short line 65 would
add londe after his (in place of the Skeat-Sisam menie), as this
would help to explain the mistake in v. 64.

MIDDLE ENGLISH 139

G. Taylor (Leeds Studies in English, 4) continues the Notes on
Athelston begun last year (see The Year's Work, xv. 108) with
a brief analysis of the dialect of the poem, giving his reasons
for supposing it to be slightly more northerly than that of
Robert of Brunne, and possibly c as far north as the Humber' ;
the scribe's dialect was 'more Southerly than that of the
Romance'. Localization in North Lincolnshire disagrees with
the conclusion of the recent editor of the text, A, Mel. Trounce,
who assigned it to Norfolk on linguistic and other grounds
which Taylor also disputes.

G. P. Faust has made a study of the structure of the romance
of Sir Degare and of the relations between the various texts.
The romance is extant in two manuscripts of the fourteenth
century (one fragmentary), two of the fifteenth century, three
black-letter prints, and one manuscript (' all very closely related ')
of the sixteenth century, and in the Percy Folio MS. (c. 1650).
Basing his investigations on omissions and additions in the
different versions, he first concludes that the four fifteenth-
century texts all represent one version (x), and that each of the
other texts is independent. Each of these versions, except P,
Faust argues, represents a modification of a stage in a long line
of development, starting with a form which is not extant and
ending in the Percy Folio version ; the last, however, c has been
contaminated by some member of the group that composes x\
In the second part of the monograph Faust discusses the sources
of the narrative. He finds it to be a blend of three types of
story: (i) the c Sohrab and Rustem' type, the climax of which is
a combat between a father and a son, who do not recognize
each other; (ii) the 'jealous father' type, in which a father sets
impossible tasks to his daughter's suitors ; (iii) a type derived
from the legend of St. Gregory, in which a man marries his
(unrecognized) mother. From the details of these three stories
almost all the details of Sir Degare can be accounted for.

Faust next compares Sir Degare with two related romances,
Eichars li biaus and the Dutch Die Eiddere metier Mowwen,

ia Sir Degare: A Study of the Texts and Narrative Structure, by George
Patterson Faust. Princeton and 0. U. Presses. (Princeton Studies
in English, xi.) pp. 99. Is.

140 MIDDLE ENGLISH

concluding that the former and the English romance are from
a common original, which in its turn shares a common original
with Die Riddere. Finally, the writer deals with the dragon-
episode in Sir Degare (for which he can trace no exact source),
and this and other supernatural elements such as the magic
gloves he regards as *a composite of odds and ends drawn from
a late version of a marchen and from other romances '. He finds,
however, * nothing in the structure of the Tale to support the
theory ', which has been maintained by earlier writers, of Celtic
origin. There are four short appendices, the most important
of which is that in which is listed 'most of the evidence which
can conceivably be held to oppose the stemma proposed' for
the manuscript-history of the poem.

Two romances of the Charlemagne cycle, Firumbras and
Otuel and Boland, have been edited from the Fillingham MS.
(B.M. Addit. 37492) by M. I. O'Sullivan. 14 The first comprises
1,842 lines in rhymed couplets, the second 2,786 lines in twelve-
line stanzas with tail-rhyme. The introduction is mostly con-
cerned with the relationships of these tales to other versions
of the same romances in French and English. The editor con-
cludes that the Fillingham Firumbras c does not derive directly
from any of the extant verse texts', though it 'exhibits special
agreements' with all but one of them, and that it and the
Bodleian Sir Ferumbras are from a common source. The
differences between Firumbras and other versions may be due
to its immediate (lost) French source, or to the imagination of
the English translator/ As for Otuel and Roland, it is probable
that the Fillingham and Auchinleck versions of the first part
(w. 1-1691, down to the capture and baptism of Garcy) had
a common English original, and that the second part (which
includes the death of Roland) is probably derived from a French
Turpin. The introduction, the arguments and arrangement of
which are not always clear, is marred by an unusual number of
obvious misprints, by serious confusion between sound and
symbol in the section on phonology (e.g. O.E. stable y remains
y\ p. Ixxv), and by the quite unnecessary representation of

14 Firumbras and Otuel and Roland, ed. by Mary Isabella O 'Sullivan.
(E.E.T.S., 198.) O.TLP. pp. lxxxviii+101. 18*.

MIDDLE ENGLISH 141

OE. SB, se by ae, oe. There is a glossary, wMch might well have
had etymological explanations, and also, by way of notes, some
extracts from the Latin Turpin's Chronicle to illustrate the
relation of Otuel and Roland (w. 1692-2777) to this version.

We must pass over quickly a number of articles which deal
with Arthurian matter from a general point of view rather than
that of Middle English literature, 0. G. S. Crawford has an
article in Antiquity (Sept.) on Arthur and his Battles, which he
believes to have been fought in the north, and perhaps to
'represent the opposition of the inhabitants of the Celtic zone
... to attempts at penetration by Angles, Saxons and Frisians,
or clashes between varying groups of Celts, Scots and Picts*.

Gordon Hall Gerould (Speculum, Oct.) in Arthurian Bomance
and the Date of the Belief at Modena argues against E. S.
Loomis's views on the early date of the Arthurian carvings on
the archivolt of the north portal of the cathedral at Modena.
If, as Loomis believes, they are of the early twelfth century,
they ante-date the period at which Geoffrey of Monmouth's
Historia became well known, and we must look for another
early source for the widespread dissemination of Arthurian
stories. Gerould's arguments are too detailed to be given here,
and we can only give his conclusion that the Porta della Pescheria
'seems unlikely ... to have been finished with all its elaborate
carvings before 1150 at the earliest'.

Jacob Hammer (Speculum, Jan.) prints and discusses an
anonymous Commentary on the Prophetia Merlini, which is
found in two manuscripts of the Prophetia: Bibl. Nationale,
Fonds Latin 6233, and Fonds Latin 4126. In each case the
commentary is marginal, and covers only part of the text. Both
versions of the commentary are of the fourteenth century ; the
name of the scribe of the first is unknown ; the second is the
work of a York scribe, Eobert of Populton or Popilton.

Gweneth Hatchings, in an article on Qawain and the Abduc-
tion of Guenevere (Med. J$v. 9 Feb.), prefers the theory of Arthur
as the chief rescuer of Guenevere to that which would assign
this role to Gawain.

In HaTcewill and the Arthurian Legend George Williamson
(M.L.N., Nov.) quotes a passage from George HakewilTs

142 MEDDLE ENGLISH

Apologie or Declaration of the Power and Providence of God in
the Gouernment of the World (1627), condemning the British
legends of the Trojan Brutus and of Arthur as 'unsound and
unwarrantable \ c fabulous history 5 , and 'ridiculous fictions*.

Elizabeth M. Wright gives an interesting series of notes on
the text of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight in P.M.L.A. (Apr,,
July), chiefly on lexicographical points. The notes are intro-
duced by some general considerations concerning the author
and the matter of the poem. Just as the late Sir Israel Gollancz
saw in the person of Gawain 'some contemporary knight 5 ,
Mrs. Wright sees 'our author in Ms lighter mood in the figure of
the Green Knight, the bolde burnepatpe bur$ a^te, the courteous
and hospitable host 3 , the country gentleman with a taste for
amateur theatricals, who could delight in picturing himself
masquerading as a monster in an 'enterlude', terrifying the
audience by Ms violence and rage. Mrs. Wright finds tMs
dramatic or mumming-play element especially marked in the
scenes in Arthur's hall, at the Green Chapel, and also in the
scene (the significance of wMch she thinks is often missed) in
wMch the guide assigned to Sir Gawain tries 'to scare [Mm]
beforehand by tales of rutMess murders committed by the giant
he is about to meet 3 .

Angus Macdonald, in a note on Sir Gawain and the Green
Knight (Jf.Zr.JB., July), suggests that wonder in the phrase werre
and wrake and wonder (v. 16) denotes 'destruction', quoting as
a parallel the words from the Peterborough Chronicle, pa diden
hi atte wunder y wMch Joseph Hall explained as 'did dreadful
deeds, destruction', &c. (Cf. the note on tMs line in Mrs. Wright's
article referred to above.)

A Note on Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, L 1700, by Henry
Savage in Med. Mv (Oct.), deals with the word trayle^ in the
line Trayle$ qfte a trayteres bi traunt of her wyles. TMs was
glossed by Tolkien and Gordon in their edition of the poem as
'to (follow a) trail', postulating a use of the word in this sense
about two hundred years before the date of any corresponding
example given by the O.E.D. Savage shows by a number of
quotations from Gunnar Tilander's article on OFr. traillier
(Studia neophilologica, i) that tMs Erench verb had a technical

MIDDLE ENGLISH 143

sense when used as a hunting term, 'Chercher la bete par les
cHens sans avoir aucune piste et sans avoir quete auparavant
par le limier', in fact, that of the modern English term "to
draw' (a covert, &c.). It is in this sense, and as derived from
the OFr. traillier, that Savage would understand the verb
in Sir Gawain. He follows Emerson in retaining trayteres
(= traitoress, i.e. the vixen), and takes bi traunt of her wyles to
allude to the tendency of a vixen to double back on her tracks
to regain the covert, crossing and confusing the line of the hunt.

A. G. Hooper in The Awntyrs off Arthure: Dialect and Author-
ship (Leeds Studies in English, 4) aims at showing that this
romance 'was not written originally in a Northwest Midland
dialect but in a Northern one, and that marked differences in
style make it improbable that one and the same man wrote'
this poem, the Pistill of Susan, and the Morte Arthure, as had
been suggested by S. 0. Andrew (R.E.S., v). Hooper takes into
account all four manuscripts of the Awntyrs: Thornton, Douce,
Ireland, and Lambeth (for which see The Tear's Work, xv. 111).
The evidence for the original dialect is not very extensive, but
such as it is it supports his case. His arguments against common
authorship of the three poems above mentioned are based
mainly on the evidence of c tags' and other phrases, of rhyme-
forms, and of alliteration, and this evidence seems sufficient to
establish his thesis.

J. L. N. O'Loughlin shows in Med. JEv. (Oct.) that in The
Middle English Alliterative 'Morte Arthure' very many of the
lines with 'faulty 3 alliteration (which have commonly been
emended) occur in alliterative couplets, e.g. We are comen fro
pe Jcyng: of pis lythe ryche / That Jcnawen is for conqueror:
corownde in erthe, 1653-4 ; farther, many of these couplets form
a syntactical unit. This theory eliminates the advisability of
emendation in many lines. The second part of the article gives
annotations of a number of individual passages, with suggestions
for emendation, interpretation, and etymology.

This chapter chronicled last year (see The Tear's Work, xv.
110-11) the discovery of a manuscript of Malory's Morte
Darthur. A short study of this manuscript in its relation to

144 MIDDLE ENGLISH

Caxton's print, with which it is contemporary, and to Malory's
sources, has been published by E. Vinaver 15 (in, and as a reprint
from, the John Bylands Library Bulletin), as a foretaste of the
edition of the Winchester MS. which he is preparing. He shows
briefly by instances from the manuscript, Caxton, and the
French sources that the two former have a common source
intermediate between them and the last named ; in this con-
clusion he agrees with Oakeshott (see The Tear's Work, as
above), though he doubts the validity of some of the latter J s
proofs. He discusses the methods to be followed in recon-
structing the text as Malory wrote it, his own plan being to use
the Winchester MS. as a basis (as the more complete), taking
variant readings from C only when they are supported by the
sources against the manuscript. On the whole character and
ptirpose of the Morte Darihur he suggests that Malory was

* primarily concerned not with the telling of adventures, but
with the glorification of Knighthood as an institution 3 , and
that the alterations he made in his sources were made with
this end in view. Malory's interest was political rather than
romantic. His intention is seen better in the manuscript than
in the edition of Caxton, who considerably shortened many of
the Arthurian episodes. The moral purpose which has also been
traced in the Morte Darthur has been difficult to relate to the
character of the author, if we may identify him with the

* Lancastrian knight and burglar' of whom records are extant,
and who was several times imprisoned for various offences.
Vinaver thinks it possible that the writing of the book was
undertaken by a penitent Malory 'to redeem his offences', and
points out that a phrase at the conclusion of the Winchester
MS., c by a knyght presoner Sir Thomas Malleorre', supports
the identification of the writer with the robber.

In an article in M.L.R. (Apr.) George R. Stewart suggests
that the English Geography in Malory's 'Morte D* Arthur' is
less vague and ' fanciful ' than has sometimes been supposed.
Malory gives many more indications of place than are to be
found in any of the earlier romances; some of these topo-
graphical indications may be derived from lost sources, some

15 Malory*s Morte Darthur in the Light of a Eecent Discovery, by-
Eugene Vinaver. Manchester Univ. Press, pp. 21. Is. d.

MIDDLE ENGLISH 145

may depend on Malory himself. Stewart gives possible and
interesting explanations for some of Malory's geographical
identifications and references.

Next we deal with Middle English chronicles, beginning with
Lagamon's Brut. A monograph entitled Lajamon: An Attempt
at Vindication^ comes to us from Holland. (The purpose
of the sub-title is not clear.) Writing on La3amon's sources,
Visser contends that the poet c made no use of any Latin works,
except to some extent of Geoffrey's Historia', and gives, to
show the influence of Geoffrey, a number of parallel passages
which are not entirely convincing, though the theory is certainly
a possible one. Further, he believes that La3amon was not
unacquainted with Welsh oral tradition, from which he intro-
duced stories and names into his epic. He disagrees with the
theory advanced by R. Imelmann (1905) that a Norman
chronicle based on a fusion of Wace and Gaimar was the main
source of the Brut. He agrees with the now usual opinion that
Lagamon is essentially an original and skilful poet, and that
the whole spirit of his poem is thoroughly Anglo-Saxon in
character and tradition.

Edward Zettl has produced a good edition of the so-called
Short Metrical Chronicle.* 1 This text is extant in five manu-
scripts: Royal 12 c. xii (R), 1320-40; MS. Auchinleck (A),
1330-40; B.M. Addit. MS. 19677 (B), 1390-1400; Univ. Libr.
Cambridge Dd. xiv. 2 (D), before 1432 ; Univ. Libr. Cambridge
Iff. v. 48 (F), fifteenth century. There are also two fragments:
Bodl. Rawl. poet. 145 (H) and B.M. Cot. Calig. A. xi (C), and
an Anglo-Norman translation in Univ. Libr. Cambridge Gg.
i. 1 (G). The relations between these versions are examined,
and Zettl finds that R is nearest to the original (0), F derived
from a modification (x) of 0, while the others stand at various
removes from a modification of x. The present text is based
on B, which has not previously been printed. Footnotes give

16 La$amon: An Attempt at Vindication, by G. J. Visser. Assen:
Van Gorcum. pp. 100. /. 2.90.

17 An Anonymous Short English Metrical Chronide, ed. from the
manuscripts with Introduction and Glossary by E. Zettl. (E.E.T.S., 196.)
O.U.P. pp. cxxxvi+163. 20.

2762.16

146 MIDDLE ENGLISH

variant readings from other manuscripts. Part II gives 'all
those passages . . . which do not exist at all in B or which differ
substantially from the corresponding ones in that manuscript' ;
in Part III the Anglo-Norman version is printed in fall.

The original version of the chronicle consisted of a straight-
forward, comparatively bald account of the course of English
history (actual and legendary) from the coming of Brutus to
the beginning of the reign of Edward II, told in rhymed
couplets. It was probably written for the instruction of the
little-educated parts of the community'. Various redactors
added to the original matter, in some cases extending the
period covered, and in one version the original 900 or so lines
were increased to over 2,000. The sources of the Chronicle
are not easy to determine, but the original writer seems at
least to have been acquainted with the Rhymed Chronicle of
Robert of Gloucester, and some of the detail 'may ultimately
go back to the Oesta Eegwm of William of Malmesbury, to
Layamon B, or to Geoffrey of Monmouth'. The number of
redactions shows that the poem was comparatively popular for
some time. The literary value of the Chronicle is less than its
historical or linguistic value. The editor has examined in detail
the phonology of each of the different versions. From the
rhymes which appear to derive from the original text he con-
cludes that the poem was first written in South or South-east
Warwickshire. The Introduction includes a long discussion of
the differences in the several versions, the text being divided
for this purpose into short sections. The volume ends with a
glossary and index of proper names.

The popular chronicle of the fifteenth century is the theme of
a monograph by F.-J. Starke. 18 After a brief introduction in
which he sketches the state of literature in the fifteenth century,
and stresses the importance at that time of middle-class society,
as distinct from the Court, the nobility, and the Church, not
only as a reading public but in increasing measure as a writing

18 Populdre englische CfvroniJcen des 15. Jahrhunderts: Sine Unter-
sudiung uber ihre literarische Form, by Fritz-Joachim Starke. (ISTeue
deutsche Forschungen, 51.) Berlin; Junker und Bunnhaupt. pp. 174.
BM. 7,50,

MIDDLE ENGLISH 147

public, lie devotes the first two chapters to a short critical
survey of the historical work produced by English clerics from
the period of the early 'Easter tables'. The medieval Latin
chronicle may be considered as having two sides, the annalistic
and the biographical, of which the second has the greater claim
to literary status. On the whole the subject-matter of the
monastic and episcopal chronicles is of practical, material
interest ; their character is temporal rather than spiritual ; but
in spite of their many faults they did attain to some importance
both linguistically, c da hier ein Idiom geschaffen wurde, das
die Verstandigung des gesamten Abendlandes ermoglichte ', and
even as literature. In the monasteries creative activity seems
to have come to an end with some suddenness at the beginning
of the fifteenth century, and at this time, too, the biographies of
bishops and other dignitaries diminish seriously in length and
quality. At this time, however, two types of secular chronicle
rise in importance: the chronicles of London, and the fifteenth-
century prose Brut with its prototypes. This was the first great
period of the London citizens, and their pride in themselves
and their city was in part expressed in written narratives and
memoirs, usually anonymous. After giving a list of the chief
documents of this kind (e.g. Eabyan's Chronicle, Gregory's
Chronicle, the Great Chronicle, &c,) Starke proceeds to give an
account of the general character of their contents, and suggests
that their greatest importance lies in the information they
afford about the lives and interests of the ordinary citizen.
Any literary quality that is to be found in them is for the most
part in the descriptions of individual episodes, not in any
general feeling for form or style.

The fourth chapter is devoted to 'das wichtigste historische
Buch des 15. Jahrhunderts', The Brut or Chronicles of England ;
this was printed by Caxton (under the latter title) in 1480, and
in addition to the thirteen editions which appeared between
that date and 1528, a large number of contemporary manu-
scripts are still extant. This work gives an account of the history
of Britain down to 1461, beginning, like its Middle English
prototypes, with the advent of the Trojan Brutus to this
country, and drawing the history of the earliest times ultimately
from Nennius and Geoffrey of Monmouth. The literary worth

148 MIDDLE ENGLISH

of the Brut, in spite of the fact that much of it is a compilation
from earlier works, is not inconsiderable, and various points of
its style are discussed by Starke at some length. The volume
ends with an appendix on the verse-passages found in the Brut,
another on later continuations of the Brut, and a bibliography,

A survey of the work done this year on other Middle English
prose may well begin with the Ancren Riwle. In a letter on The
Torkington Chartulary (T.L.S., Feb. 14) EL E. Allen proposes
to identify the three recluses for whom the Riwle, was written
(and whom she had, as is well known, identified with the three
puellae to whom the Abbot of Westminster gave the hermitage
of Kilburn in the reign of Henry I) with the three unmarried
daughters of a certain Deorman of London ; these three, with
their brother Ordgar, according to a writ of Henry I, gave land
in London to Westminster Abbey in return for fraternity in the
Abbey. Mss Allen would further identify this Deorman, an
Anglo-Saxon thane of William the Conqueror, with the Deorman
who appears prominently in the Hertfordshire Doomsday.

Miss Allen expands this suggestion in an article in P.M.L.A.
(Sept.) on The Three Daughters of Deorman. The name of
Orgarus filius Deremanni is found elsewhere in London records
as that of a member of the Cnihtengild, and two other e sons of
Deorman', Algar and Tierri, are also known. Tierri became
Deorman's heir, and if he was really the brother of the three
recluses he is important as linking them with a leading Norman
family, since his wife was a Clare. The work which Miss Allen
is doing on the provenance of the extant manuscripts of the
Riwle c has brought out the extraordinary persistence of court
connexions with this English treatise'. Miss Allen does not
press her proposed identification unduly, and as she says, since
Deorman seems to have died in 1093-7, 'only on the supposi-
tion that daughters of his were infants at his death could . . .
they have been the persons for whom the Ancren Riwle was
written 3 .

A short article on Proverbs in the 'Ancren Riwle 9 and the
'Recluse' by B. J. Whiting (M.L.R., Oct.) supplements an
earlier article on the proverbs of the Riwle by D. V. Ives, which
was incomplete, and shows how the fourteenth-century adaptor,

MIDDLE ENGLISH 149

in the Reduse, retained, omitted, or added to the proverb
material of the Riwle.

The only other article on the Ancren Biwle is Vincent
McNabb's The Authorship of the Ancren Riwle (Archivum
Fratrum Praedicatorum, Rome, iv), which the present writer
has not seen.

In The Connection of the Katherine Group with Old English
Prose (J.E.G.P., Oct.) Dorothy Bethurum compares the style
of St. Margaret, St. Juliana, and St. Katherine with that of
JElfric's Saints' Lives, and comes to the conclusion that the
influence of the latter was outstanding in the development of
the style of the Katherine Group. The rhythm of the latter 'is
a fairly successful copy' of that of the Old English writer, and
the use of alliteration, though different in some respects,
approaches that of Mfric. The alliteration in the three Middle
English pieces is less skilful and subtle, and the free use of
alliterative phrases and tags resembles the practice of Wulfstan
and others rather than that of Mfric. Miss Bethurum, on the
other hand, finds no resemblance to, or influence of the Latin
style on that of the Katherine Group.

The first part of this article points out briefly some distinc-
tions in style between the texts of the Katherine Group and others
associated with them, the Ancren Riwle, Sawles Warde, and
Hali Meidenhad, all of which are lacking in the well defined
rhythm and the regular use of alliteration which are such
marked features of the style of the three saints 5 lives.

In an article on The Provenance of the Lambeth Homilies with
a New Collation (Leeds Studies in English, 4), R. M. Wilson
argues against the ascription of this text to Middlesex. He
shows the resemblance between the dialectal features of MS.
Lambeth 487 and those of the Katherine Group, but hardly
succeeds in proving definitely that the complex of features
shown in the former cannot be from Middlesex. A good deal
depends on the attitude one takes towards the variant forms
of the manuscript (and there are many of them), and the ex-
tent to which they are explained away. It is curious, but
by no means impossible, that the dialects of two unconnected
South Midland areas should be very similar at this early date.

150 MIDDLE ENGLISH

It is useful to have a new collation of the printed text with
the manuscript, even though 'no serious errors have been
found'.

On an individual point of phonology we may include here a
note by the same writer on ae 1 and &* in Middle English (Proc.
of Leeds PJiilos. and Lit. Soc. m. vi), in which he indicates the
advisability of a re-examination of the evidence relating to the
development of these vowels, especially in regard to rhymes
and shortened forms.

The West Midland tract Lincolniensis (MS. Bodl. 647), now
attributed to Nicholas Hereford, contains a reference to Mauris
& Ms felowes. Mauris has usually been identified with St.
Maurus, the first disciple of St. Benedict, but Bruce Dickins
shows (Proc. of Leeds Philos. and Lit. Soc. rv. ii) that the
reference is to St. Maurice cum sociis suis, martyred under
Maximian, in the fourth century, and adds notes on the legend
of St. Maurice.

In a note in jR.E.S. (Apr.) Constance Davies refers to a version
of the story of The Revelation of the Monk of Evesham in Ralph
of CoggeshalTs Ohronicum Anglicum, which supports the theory
of an early manuscript version, perhaps from the late twelfth
century, to which period (1196) the revelation is assigned.
Ralph of Coggeshall disagrees with William de Machlinia and
Roger de Wendover in referring the monk to Eynsham ( c in
Enigsamensi coenobio 3 ), not Evesham. Miss Davies believes
this to be a mistake on the part of Ralph or a scribe.

Sir E. K. Chambers, however, points out (ibid., July) that
'the Latin Vision of the Monk of Eynsham or Enesham, not
Evesham, exists in a score or more of manuscripts ', and has
been edited more than once.

A Second MS. of Wyclifs 'De Dominio GiviW is reported
by W. Peters Reeves (M.L.N., Feb.) to be extant in MS.
Bibliotheque Nationale 15869, bound up with a manuscript of
the Defensor Pads of Marsiglio of Padua. The De Dominio
Civili has previously been known only from the Vienna MS.
(ed. by R. L. Poole, 1884).

A. Pirkhofer in Zum syntaktischen Gebrauch des bestimmten
Artikek bei Caxton (Eng. Stud., Apr.) gives material illustrating
the use, or omission, of the definite article in sixteen types of

MIDDLE ENGLISH 151

phrase, e.g. with words denoting measure, before numerals,
before the vocative, before proper nouns, &c.

There is a fair amount of work to report this year on the
medieval play.

W. W. Greg's edition of the Peniarth and Devonshire texts
of the play of Antichrist, forms part of his plan c to ascertain
the textual history of the Chester cycle of mystery plays, and
the principles that should guide an editor in attempting to
reconstruct its original form'. The pageant of Antichrist is an
important one in the cycle, since it is extant not only in the
five cyclic manuscripts, but also (alone) in another and much
earlier manuscript. The present study deals with textual and
not recensional variations, but it is clear 'that the recension
current at the end of the fifteenth century must have been
substantially different from those with which we are familiar
a hundred years later '.

After a brief note on the legend of Antichrist } and an explana-
tion of the scope of the present work, the editor describes in
detail the six manuscripts of the pageant: Devonshire (D, 1591),
B.M. Addit. 10305 (W, 1592), Harley 2013 (B, 1600), Bodl. 175
(B, 1604), Harley 2124 (H, 1607), and, the separate MS.,
Peniarth 399 (P, c. 1500) in the Hengwrt-Peniarth collection,
now in the National Library of Wales at Aberystwyth. The
last is written on two quires of vellum, one of four and one
of six leaves, which have been folded down the middle ; this
folding 'may be due to the book having been carried in the
pocket, and the rubbed and faded condition of the writing
suggests much handling. One is tempted to suppose that we
have here an actual prompt-book used in the production of
the play.' The manuscript has unfortunately been largely re-
touched, even rewritten, by a modern 'restorer 5 .

In this edition the P and D texts are printed on opposite
pages; footnotes record difficulties and interesting palaeo-
graphical points, all important variant readings in the other
manuscripts, and a more minute record of the differences
between P and H, the manuscript which P most nearly re-

19 The Play of Antichrist from the Chester Cycle, ed. by W. W. Greg.
O.TJJP. pp. c+90. 10s.

152 MIDDLE ENGLISH

sembles. The method of collation follows the principles laid
down in Greg's Calculus of Variants (1927). A fall analysis of
the variants is given, with the object of determining the normal
grouping of the manuscripts and their individual relationships.
We cannot do more here than indicate the conclusions which
the editor draws from Ms material. These are, in brief: all the
manuscripts, with the possible exception of P, are collateral ;
apart from P, none can be the ancestor of any other ; P is not
the immediate parent of any other ; the groups PHB and DWR
are normal, B and D being intermediate between PH on the
one hand and WB on the other ; the six extant manuscripts are
derived through a series of hypothetical manuscripts from a
common archetype, which, however, 'was already by no means
correct, and cannot be supposed original'.

The introduction ends with an important section on the
relative value of the individual manuscripts for editorial pur-
poses, leading to the choice of D among the cyclic manuscripts.
The text then follows, and the volume ends with notes whose
object is c to elucidate the relationship of the manuscripts ' rather
than to explain the text, and an index to words discussed in
the notes or introduction.

The Malone Society devotes one of its volumes for 1935 to
a new text of another of the Chester plays and a number of
smaller contributions to the history of the cycle. 20

F. M. Salter found at Chester, in an Enrolment Book (1597-
1776) of the Coopers' Company, e a copy of the Sixteenth Play
of the Chester series, dealing with the Flagellation of Christ',
copied into the book c on the 22th day of August 1599 ' by George
Bellin, who was also responsible for two manuscripts of the
cycle (B.M. Addit. 10305, and Harley 2013), and was scribe to
the Coopers' Company for nearly thirty years. Salter shows
from a document of 1422, preserved among the loose papers of
the Guild, that even then the plays of the Flagellation and the
Crucifixion were distinct and did not form a unit as they do
in MS. Harley 2124. He believes that so far from the single-

20 The Trial and Flagellation, with other stitdies in the Chester Cycle,
by P. M. Salter and W. W. Greg. O.TLP. for the Malone Society,
pp. 171.

MIDDLE ENGLISH 153

play form in H being a relic of an old tradition, the joining of
the two was due to the depressed state of the Ironmongers'
Company (who produced the 'Crucifixion') in the sixteenth
century, and therefore that Harley 2124 represents a new
development and not, as has been thought, the oldest form of
the cycle. Salter gives a series of extracts from the Coopers*
records, illustrating the history of the play, and other items
from the Ironmongers' records of 1606-7. He then proposes a
new genealogical scheme for the manuscripts of the cycle, dis-
agreeing with that suggested by W. W. Greg. This argument is
opposed by Greg in ( Remarks on the Relation of the Manu-
scripts', printed as an appendix to the Trial. The text of the
Trial, with variant readings, follows.

The next item in this volume of the Malone Society publica-
tions is a description and the text of 'The Manchester Fragment
of the Resurrection', part of a single leaf, containing w. 113,
21-41, preserved in the Manchester Free Library. This is
followed by an essay on 'Christ and the Doctors and the York
Play'. In both these items Greg continues his studies in the
manuscript history of the cycle. The last item contains "The
Lists and Banns of the Plays' printed from manuscripts in the
Randle Holme collection, including a list of the crafts of Chester,
from c. 1500, now for the first time published.

Mendal G. Frampton (P.M.L.A., Sept.) reconsiders the ques-
tion of The Date of the ' Wakefield Master*, whose work has been
placed in various periods from the early fourteenth century to
the reign of Edward IV. Frampton deals first with costume,
and here produces two new readings from the manuscript of
Judicium in the well-known passage She is hornyd like a kowe, j
a new fon syn, / The culer hyngys so side now, / furrid mth a cat
skyn. In this the words a new have now been recovered with
the help of the violet-ray, and culer 'collar', which is clear
in the manuscript, replaces cuker, as it has formerly been
transcribed. A detailed investigation of this and other i costume
passages' in those plays or parts of pl&ys which are considered
to be genuinely the work of the 'Wakefield master' leads
Frampton to the conclusion that this poet 'was not writing
before the second quarter of the fifteenth century*. Then, after

154 MIDDLE ENGLISH

restating and amplifying the arguments for believing that the
Towneley MS. is a register of Wakefield guild-plays, and 'that
the cycle . . . must have been in much its present form when
the Master completed his work upon the plays', Frampton
asks, 'When was Wakefield and its vicinity able to sponsor our
elaborate cycle of mystery plays', involving no less than 224
roles ? He finds an answer to this in the poll-tax records ; in
the year 1379 the village of Wakefield had a total adult popula-
tion of 315. (The towns of Beverley, Newcastle, and Coventry
within a year or two of this date had adult populations respec-
tively of 2,663, 2,647, and about 7,000.) The same records also
indicate that Wakefield at that time was far too poor to be able
to finance a large cycle of plays, even assuming that the (equally
poor) countryside helped. By 1553 Wakefield is said to have
been the largest and most flourishing town in the district, but
this leaves a large gap. Frampton argues against Gayley's
dating of 1375-1400, and Pollard's of 1400-15. There seems
to be some reason for supposing that during the reign of Henry
VI it was growing larger and more prosperous, and this cor-
roborates the arguments from costume advanced earlier in
this article. Some bibliographical evidence, briefly dealt with
in the final paragraphs, point to the same conclusion.

Some Textual Notes based on Examination of the Towneley
Manuscript are supplied by Margaret Trusler (P.Q., Oct.), who
has 'made a special point of examining all passages involving
irregular or obscure rime-words, as well as those passages
already cited in previous textual criticism'. Miss Trusler com-
ments altogether on thirty-one forms.

Some Analogues to the MaJc Story have been contributed to
the Journal of American Folk-Lore (Oct.-Dec., 1934) by H. M.
Smyser and T. B. Stroup.

R. Withington has a note on Water fastand (M.L.N., Feb.)
in Secunda Pastorum 352. The word water was explained by
Strunk (M.L.N., 1930) as equivalent to waiter, 'roll, toss', and
Withington points out that water is probably a phonetic spelling
indicating the loss of I before t.

In M.L.E. (Apr.) Anna J. Mill publishes an interesting series
of craft-accounts dealing with the Bakers* Corpus Christi

MIDDLE ENGLISH 155

pageant, from 1543 to 1580. They show that the Corpus
Dhristi play was regularly performed by the bakers, alone or
with the help of the water-leaders or others, over a considerable
number of years (plague-years excepted), even through the
reign of Mary. There is a gap in the accounts from 1557 to
1563, but there is evidence from minutes in other records of the
Guild that the play was given at least occasionally during this
time. 'On three occasions only after this, 1567, 1569, 158-,
have we any evidence that the bakers gave their play of the
Last Supper ; and, by then, to judge from the sparse expendi-
ture, the play was shorn of its glory.'

Mass Mill shows what can be gathered from the accounts as
to the episodes of the play, and the properties required therein
(e.g. 'ffor mendyng the lam & payntyng off the dyadems'), the
catering for the actors' meals, and repairs for the pageant house
and pageant car.

Two notes on Morality Plays appear in P.Q. (July). One, by
Robert Withington, proposes to emend pley in The Castle of
Perseverance, Line 695 to prey as more correctly representing
the speaker's attitude towards mankind'.

Norman E. Eliason makes a new suggestion as to the meaning
of lappe in the line C I take my cap in my lappe ' (Everyman, 801).
He relates it to various Germanic words with the senses of c paw,
blade of an oar, sole of a foot, flat hand, large or coarse hand',
and so forth, e.g. Scand. labb, Norw. lamp, lappe, Icel. loppa,
and he gives other instances in Middle or Early Modern English
in which lap(pe] may well be understood as 'hand'.

Finally, this chapter must include a number of publications of
less importance to literary history. The first few are on the
subject of manners and social training in medieval England.

Peter Idley's Instructions to Ms Son 21 has now been edited in
full for the first time. This long poem, of more than 7,500 lines,
is less a literary achievement than an interesting reflection of
the social life of the fifteenth century *a faithful expression of
the middle-class culture of [Idley's] day'. The author's name

21 Peter Idley's Instructions to "his Son, edited by Charlotte D'Evelyn.
(Mod. Lang. Assoc. of America, Monograph Series, vi) Boston: Heath;
London: Milford. pp. 240.

156 MIDDLE ENGLISH

is given by himself in a Latin preface (omitted from some of the
seven manuscripts) as Petrus Idle armiger, and since he remarks
in Book II, in reference to his c symple 3 English, C I was born in
Kent' 3 he has usually been referred to hitherto as 'Peter Idle
of Kent '. In a long and interesting introduction Miss D'Evelyn
gives reasons for assuming that the reference to Kent is merely
a proverbial expression equivalent to 'I am no polished writer',
and proceeds to identify Peter with Peter Idley of Oxfordshire,
a public official whose life can be traced in some detail. He was
Bailiff of the Honour of Wallingford, then gentleman falconer
and underkeeper of the royal mews and falcons, and finally
Controller of the King's Work. He was thus in contact with
both court and country life, and his earlier work as well as his
home at Drayton in Oxfordshire brought him into the circle
of the Stonors, Redes, Harcourts, Marmyons, and other 'good
fifteenth-century company 3 .

The Instructions are divided into two books, the first based
on two Latin works by the thirteenth-century writer Albertanus
of Brescia: Liber Consolationis et Consilii and Liber de Amore et
Dilectione Dei et Proximi. Idley's work has little unity or real
coherence, but is rather c a collection of instructions on miscel-
laneous topics . . . not specifically religious instruction . . . but
wisdom of a social and moral kind, intended to put Thomas
Idley on his guard against the world, rather than the flesh
and the devil*. The second book is based on Robert of Brunne's
Handlyng Synne, with some additions from Lydgate's Fall of
Princes. Idley treats his sources with some freedom, adding,
adapting, omitting, and rearranging, but without great skill or
originality. The date of composition lies probably between 1445
and 1450. There are seven manuscripts known, six of the
fifteenth, one of the sixteenth century, but only three contain
both Books. Miss D'Evelyn's volume includes a brief account
of the dialect of the poem, notes on the text, and an index of
the persons, places, and books mentioned in the introduction.

Some further suggestions concerning Peter Idley, and the
family of Drayton into which he married, are made in a letter
to T.L.S. (Sept. 12) by E. St. John Brooks.

Mary Theresa Brentano's monograph on medieval courtesy-

MIDDLE ENGLISH 157

poems 22 sketches the early history of the literature of good
manners in Europe and the East down to the appearance in
the twelfth century of a Latin poem with the title Doctrina
magistri Joannis Faceti, which was in fact a supplement to the
popular Distichs of Cato, and which was destined to be a model
for many future writings in Latin and in the vernaculars of
western Europe. These works have much similarity in subject-
matter; they are concerned with conversation, personal appear-
ance, social manners, and especially the etiquette of the table ;
they were usually designed for the schoolboy or the young
page. The chief Middle English documents of this type are
(a) two fifteenth-century poems with the title Stans Puer ad
Mensam, from a Latin poem of the same name ; (6) the BoJce of
Curtasye (c. 1460); (c) Vrbanitatis (c. 1460); (d) the Babe.es
Book (c. 1475) ; (e) the Lytylle Childrenes Lytil Boke (c. 1480) ;
(/) Caxton's Book of Curtesye (c. 1477, written by a pupil of
Lydgate) ; (g) the Young Children's Book (c. 1500) ; (h) Symon's
Lesson of Wysedome for all Maner Chyldryn ( ? c. 1500) ; (i)
Rhodes's Boke of Nurture (c. 1530). An account is given of the
matter of these writings, and of similar Latin works produced
in this country. A bibliography is provided.

Iris Brooke continues her series of books on English costume
with one on the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 23 which will
be of value to students of the literature of the period. Each
opening shows a page of illustrations (some in colour) and a
page of descriptive matter. The author quotes freely from
Chaucer, the Paston Letters, &c., so that pictures and text
illustrate each other. The drawings are, of course, based on
contemporary illustrations in manuscripts, &c.

Sanford Brown Meech has now found and published four
treatises on Latin grammar in fifteenth-century English. These
are of importance as making it clear that 'borrowing of the
concepts of Latin Grammar into English was common in the

22 Relationship of the Latin Facetus Literature to the Medieval English
Courtesy Poems, by Mary Theresa Brentano. (Univ. of Kansas Humanistic
Studies, v. ii.) pp. 133. $1.00.

23 English Costumes of the Later Middle Ages, drawn and described
by Iris Brooke. A. and C. Black, pp. 87. 6s.

158 MIDDLE ENGLISH

fifteenth century, more than a hundred years before the earliest
English grammars \ and this borrowing began in the equation
of Latin inflexions and constructions with English ones for the
sake of illustration, and the consequent application to English
of the formal categories of Latin. One of these four treatises
appeared in 1934 (see The Year's Work, xv. 136-7). Two are
printed in an article entitled Early Application of Latin Grammar
to English (P.M.L.A., Deo.), from MS. Douce 103 and St. John's
College Cambridge 163. These, like the others, are modelled
on the Donet, or Ars Minor of Donatus, but differ from it con-
siderably in detail. Both are in the form of question and answer,
and deal one by one with the eight Latin parts of speech. The
editor compares the four treatises in this article, adding some
notes on their resemblances to the works of later grammarians ;
he also points out their lexicographical importance, and lists the
grammatical terms employed in them.

The grammar of the Trinity College MS., edited under the
title An Early Treatise in English concerning Latin Grammar
(Essays and Studies in English and Comp. Lit, Univ. of Michigan,
xiii) is a more extensive work, including material on Latin
inflexion and syntax. It is in a manuscript which once belonged,
as is shown by internal evidence, to the College of Magdalene
at Battlefield, near Shrewsbury. The language of the English
portions of the manuscript shows a number of marked dialectal
features, which clearly distinguish it from the speech of London,
and support the view that both the grammar and this copy of it
were products of Shropshire.

S. B, Meech has also edited (Speculum, July) the three English
musical treatises out of the collection of twenty in English and
Latin in the fifteenth-century MS. Lansdowne 763. The scribe
of the whole volume was John Wylde, a precentor of the Augus-
tinian Abbey at Waltham Holy Cross in Essex. The first of the
English pieces is by Lionel Power, a composer of repute of the
early fifteenth century ; the second is anonymous ; the author
of the third bears the name of Chilston, but has not been other-
wise identified. The interest of these works is mainly technical ;
they give ' detailed and explicit information concerning musical
theory and practice in England of the fifteenth century 3 . But

MIDDLE ENGLISH 159

the text also possesses some linguistic interest. In two points
(the predominating e for OE. y and the occurrence of -th plnrals
by the side of -(ri) forms) the dialect is distinguished from the
contemporary Literary Standard. Moreover, they contain a
number of words and special senses not recorded in the O.E.D.
before the sixteenth century.

In Speculum (Oct.) Donald Drew Egbert gives a very full
description of The 'Tewkesbury* Psalter and its contents, with
three facsimile pages. This manuscript, which is "a good
example of typical English Gothic illumination of the third
quarter of the thirteenth century', was probably written for
the unknown woman whose portrait appears within the initial
letter of one of the Canticles. A series of obits added in the
fifteenth century connects the manuscript with the important
families of Beauchamp, Despenser, and Neville, and with the
Benedictine Abbey of Tewkesbury. It is possible that the
original owner was an ancestress of the Johanna Beauchamp,
Lady Abergavenny (daughter of the Earl of Arundel), whose
obit is the first in the volume. The manuscript is now in the
library of Mr. Robert Garrett of Baltimore,

VI

THE RENAISSANCE
By F. S. BOAS

AMONG the 1935 publications with which this chapter is con-
cerned, precedence in the present year may appropriately be
given to an account of the coronation of a Queen Consort
Elizabeth. From a manuscript now in his possession George
Smith has printed The Coronation of Elizabeth Wydeville. 1 This
is the only known contemporary source describing the ceremony
in Westminster Abbey and the banquet that followed in West-
minster Hall. A facsimile is given of the first page of the MS.,
which is written upon six leaves of paper bearing a watermark
also found in paper on which some of the Paston letters are
written.

In his introduction Smith draws attention to some special
points. As the Duke of Buckingham was only nine years of
age he could not act as hereditary Constable, so the Earl of
Arundel discharged the dual offices of Constable and Butler.
As the Bishopric of Bath was vacant, the Bishop of Salisbury
walked on one side of the Queen, and on the other, according
to custom, the Bishop of Durham, though he had been suspended
as a Lancastrian supporter. The Earl of Oxford, as has not
been otherwise known, acted as Chamberlain. The assemblage
at the Coronation, as Smith observes, 'provided a true mirror
of the King's policy to be the ruler of a nation rather than of
a party, for it was certainly a gathering in which the more
moderate elements of the country had adequate representation.'
The editor adds helpful notes on all the personages taking
part in the ceremony, together with indexes and a bibliography.

The career of Elizabeth's brother, Anthony Wydeville, is
sketched by Rudolf Hittmair in Earl Rivers' Einleitung zu
einer Efbertragung der ( Weisheitsspruche der Philosopher 5 (Anglia,

1 The Coronation of Elizabeth Wydeville, Queen Consort of Edward IV,
on May 26th 1465 : A contemporary account now first set forth from a
fifteenth-century manuscript by George Smith. Ellis, pp. 88. 6s.

THE RENAISSANCE 161

lix. 328 ff.). After this biography he prints the Introduction
to Rivers's Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers, printed by
Caxton in 1477. Hittmair takes the different sections of the
Introduction seriatim, with a running commentary, including
an account of JehandeTeonville, provost of Paris, whose French
version of a Latin original was used by Rivers. The question
of whether Rivers knew this version in print or in manuscript
is also discussed.

R. Weiss prints in full for the first time A Letter-Preface of
John Free to John Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester (B.Q.R., viii, no.
87). It is the preface to Free's Latin version of Bishop
Synesius's Laus Calvitii, which he dedicated and presented
to Tiptoft on the occasion of the latter's return from Italy to
England in 1461. Reiss gives reasons for concluding that MS.
Bodl. 80 is the copy given to Tiptoft. The Latin preface is
in the customary vein of high-flown adulation. But it con-
tains two points of biographical interest. It is the only con-
temporary document that tells that Pope Pius II was moved
to tears by Tiptoft's eloquence, and compared Mm with the
most illustrious of classical worthies. It also confirms the
statement of his Italian biographer, Vespasiano da Bisticci,
that he set out on his long travels because he did not wish to be
involved in the factions of the civil wars.

As 1935 was the 400th anniversary of the death of Sir Thomas
More, it has naturally marked the high tide of the flood of
publications concerning him which have been noticed during
recent years in this annual survey. And here precedence must
be given to R. W. Chambers's volume, Thomas More. 2 As he
tells us in his preface, he has brooded over his subject for some
thirty years. Several of his publications dealing with some
aspect of it have been noticed previously in The Tear's Work,
(xi. 128-9, xiii. 18-20, 131-2). In the present study he has
summed up the results of his long and devoted labours. By his
mastery of his materials, his breadth of vision, and his distinction
of style he has won all the suffrages even of those who would
not endorse all his views of More's part in affairs of church and
state.

2 Thomas More, by R, W. Chambers. Cape. pp. 416. 12*. &L

2762,16 L

162 THE RENAISSANCE

But these concern us less here than the sections of his book
in which Chambers deals with More as a scholar and writer.
Thus we have, at Ms bidding, to give up the picture of the
Oxford Reformers \ with Grocyn, Linacre, Colet, and young
Thomas studying Greek together, and to realize that it was
later in London that they became close friends. The analysis
of what exactly 'humanism 3 meant to them, and especially to
More, is penetrating. So also is the discussion of the relations
of Erasmus and More, the pacifist and the patriot, with their
temperamental differences, yet linked in friendship and love of
letters.

There is a glowing picture of England in the early years of
Henry VIII's reign, deficient in painting and sculpture but
rich in 'magnificent architecture, craftsmanship, and scholar-
ship ', with poetry reviving and native prose entering into its
own. And it is in relation to its own day, as Chambers insists,
that More's most widely known work must be considered:

* Utopia is, in part, a protest against the New Statesmanship:
against the new idea, of the autocratic prince, to whom everything
is allowed. . . . Again Utopia is, in part, a protest against the
New Economics : the enclosures of the great landowners, break-
ing down old law and custom, destroying the old common-field
agriculture. . . . Parts of Utopia read like a commentary on parts
of The Prince ; . . . before The Prince was written, ideas used in
The Prince had been gaining ground. They were the "progressive "
ideas, and we may regard Utopia as a "reaction" against them/

Every one will not look at Utopia from exactly the same
angle as Chambers, but he makes it clear that, like Machiavelli's
treatise, it is c a work of our common Western European civiliza-
tion', published in Latin in six continental cities before its
publication in More's own country, and translated into German,
Italian, and French before the English version of 1551. To the
Paris edition the French scholar Bude contributed an intro-
duction; together with Vives and Cranevelt he forms one of
the group of More's later continental humanist friends. It is
as a great European that More is presented by Chambers and
as the leading figure of the last pre-Beformation period. Links
are traced between him and Langland on the one hand, and
Swift and Burke on the other. And the summing-up is that

THE RENAISSANCE 163

'More . . . has affinities with, many English, writers, mediaeval
and modern; but his closest links are with the men of the
Middle Ages, and with those moderns who have striven to
preserve something of the legacy of the Middle Ages first and
foremost, the conception of the unity of Civilisation 3 . Many of
the issues discussed by Chambers would have been beyond the
ken of More's early biographers, but they will doubtless have
welcomed this brilliant latter-day recruit to their brotherhood.

Among those biographers the most familiar is William Roper,
whose Lyfe of his father-in-law 3 has been edited by Elsie
Vaughan Hitchcock with the same zeal and scholarship as she
had previously bestowed upon Harpsfield's Life (see The Tear's
Work, xiii, 129-32). For her edition Miss Hitchcock has
collated thirteen manuscripts, of which six are in the British
Museum. Among these MS. Harleian 6254 has been taken as
the basis of her critical text, with the variants in the other
manuscripts recorded fully in the footnotes, though these
variants, as Miss Hitchcock states, are not of much significance.
She also gives an account of the previous printed editions, from
that by *T. P.' in 1626 to George Sampson's in 1910.

The historical notes to this edition are mainly summarized
from the notes to Harpsfield's Life, but on certain points there
is additional and new matter. The introduction includes a
biography of Roper, It throws fresh light on the date of his
birth, his connexion with Lincoln's Inn and St. John's College,
Oxford, of which he was a Visitor, and his lawsuit with Dame
Alice More. Miss Hitchcock mentions some of Roper's omissions
and errors, but concludes that 'for all the More Lives, Roper's
ranks as the biographia princeps, and has always been recognized
as one of the masterpieces of English literature'.

Published in 1934, and reissued in 1936, Daniel Sargent's
Thomas More* may be noticed in connexion with the anniversary
year biographies. It contains no documentary references and

3 The Lyfe of Sir Thomas Moore, Knighte, written by William Roper,
Esquire; ed. by Elsie Vaughan Hitchcock. O.U.F. for E.E.T.S.
pp. H+142. 10*,

4 Thomas More, by Daniel Sargent. Sheed and Ward. pp. 299. 5s.

164 THE RENAISSANCE

will appeal to the general reader rather than to the student.
But it is a spirited and attractively written piece of work. In
slighter fashion it presents More in something of the same light
as does Chambers. It stresses the point that s More } s most
remarkable literary talent was dramatic ; an ability to invent
dialogue. . , . With that ability he was later to illustrate Ms
controversial writings, and make his conversation as good as
a play.' It takes a similar view of the attitude of Utopia to
the new statesmanship. 'There had been talk in the Utopia
about princes . . . far, far away, who thought they were a law
to themselves. It was wiser to refer to them as far away when
they happened to be so near. They were a new type of king:
they were everywhere ; and More feared what their wilfulness
might do/ And as the dominant quality of More's life and
writings Sargent picks out e sociability'. For the exact sense
in which he uses the term, and for its illustration, reference
must be made to his book, where he also defends Sir Thomas
against charges of inconsistency.

Another well-written biography of a popular type is Sir
John B. 0'ConneITs Saint Thomas More, 5 Sir John, before his
ordination, was a practising lawyer, and he deals effectively
with the legal aspects of Here's career, as Under-Sheriff of
London, Judge of the Court of Requests, and Lord Chancellor.
He emphasises More's connexion with the City of London,
and Ms English characteristics, including Ms love of home
life. In connexion with this he enlarges on the interest of
Holbein's portraits of the More family circle, and of their
Mends and contemporaries a e unique Mstoric gallery of vivid
and true portraits wMch make the men and women of the
reign of Henry VIII to live again before our eyes '. Among
these men and women of the period there are three Anne
Boleyn, Cromwell, and Cranmer who get very short shrift from
Sir John.

He also has an article, Saint Thomas More as Citizen, in The
Dublin Renew (July-Sept.). In the same number Egerton
Beck writes on Saint Thomas More and the Law.

5 Saint Thomas More t by Sir John R. O'Connell. Duckworth,
pp. 208. 6s.

THE RENAISSANCE 165

G. G. Goulton in The Faith of Sir Thomas More (Quarterly
Rev., Oct.) approaches More somewhat differently from the
above biographers. While recognizing that Chambers has
written e a great book', he criticizes some of Ms conclusions on
points less directly connected with More's character than with
Ms environment. Coulton's arguments are mainly concerned
with political and theological issues. But attention may be
drawn here to one or two points relating to Utopia. He is of
one mind with Chambers in not discounting Utopia as a mere
jeu d? esprit and in recognizing its earnestness and far-reaching
effect. But he maintains that great innovators are to be judged
not so much by the hundred ways in wMch they ran with the
multitude as by the two or three . . . which they discovered for
themselves'. Hence to Coulton the cardinal features of Utopia
are community of property and private judgement in religion.

In an article on Contemporary Models of Sir Thomas More
(T.L.S., Nov. 2), H. Stanley Jevons claims that the picture of
the Utopian commonwealth was largely influenced by reports
that reached More during Ms residence in Flanders in 1515 of
the Socialist Inca empire of Peru. Jevons mentions three
special features common to Utopia and the empire 'the
regimenting of families under officials, the system of coloniza-
tion, and the featherwork of ceremonial vestments '. He also
enumerates seven other points of similarity. The weak point
of an interesting theory is that there is no proof that any
European had visited Peru before 1515.

Editions of Robinson's English version of Utopia* and of
More's The Four Last Things 7 have appeared. W. A. G. Doyle-
Davidson writes on The Earlier English Works of Sir Thomas
More in English Studies, xvii. 49-70, and Mary B. Whiting on
Sir Thomas More (Contemporary Review, July).

In addition to publications relating primarily to More, men-
tion is to be made of Richard L. Smith's dual biography, John

6 Utopia. Written in Latin by Sir Thomas More and done into English
by Ralph Robynson, with an introduction by H. G. Wells. Hew York:
Limited Editions Club, pp, 168.

7 The Four Last Things, by Sir Thomas More, ed. by D. O'Connor.
Burns, Gates, pp. 84. 2s. 6d

166 THE RENAISSANCE

Fisher and Thomas More: Two English Saints. 8 Tins book, which
has a foreword by the Archbishop of Westminster, was written
at the Venerable English College in Rome. It is the English
original of the Italian Lives of Fisher and More which, accord-
ing to custom, were presented to the Pope and other ecclesiastical
dignitaries after the canonization of the two Saints in St. Peter's
on 19 May 1935. It is therefore, as the preface states, a 'study
primarily of their sanctity, of their characters as supernatoral-
ized by grace, and of their martyrdom '. Thus the main features
of the book are outside the scope of this survey, but, from its
own point of view, it is written with scholarship and literary
skffl.

Of similar tendency, though addressed on more popular lines
to the 'dear reader', is Vincent McNabb's Saint John Fisher. 9
It gives a vigorous sketch of the career of the sturdy Yorkshire-
man from Ms birth at Beverley to his execution on Tower Hill,
the first Cardinal Martyr. It includes an appreciative account
of Fisher's educational activities at Cambridge and his zeal in
collecting Ms library.

A leading article on John Fisher and Thomas More (T.L.S.,
May 30), prompted by the appearance of Chambers's work and
other cognate publications, contains much that is of interest.
But attention may here be directed to its appreciative recogni-
tion of much of Fisher's writing as 'an abiding ornament to
English prose. Here, at any rate, is a man intensely English.
He goes naturally to the things of common and especially of
outdoor life' of wMch a number of illustrations are given.
It is also pointed out that Fisher did his best to enrich Ms native
tongue out of his own learning. Yet perhaps it was due to tMs
that 'for all its vigour and its bold strong rhythm Fisher's
prose . , . seems finite and dead beside More's*.

The year 1535 was memorable not only for the execution of
Fisher and More but for the first appearance in print of the

* John Fisher and Thomas More: Two English Saints, by Richard
Lawrence Smith. Sheed and Ward. pp. xi+308. 6s.

9 Saint John Fisher, by Vincent McNabb. Sheed and Ward. pp. 126,
2*. M.

THE RENAISSANCE 167

whole Bible in the English tongue. The 400th anniversary of
this event is commemorated by Henry Guppy in Miles Coverdale
and the English Bible: 1488-1568, , 10 Guppy traces Coverdale's
career till the publication of his translation, finished on 4
October 1535, and discusses the bibliographical difficulties
connected with the title-pages and the printer. Coverdale
makes it clear that he translated not from Hebrew and Greek
but from Latin and 'Douche' versions. These included the
Vulgate and Luther's German version, but he closely followed
Tindale's text in the New Testament and in part of the Old.
But for three-fourths of the latter Coverdale's was the first
printed English version. The Psalter in the 'Book of Common
Prayer' is c in essence the Psalter of the Coverdale Bible
of 1535'.

In 1537 the ' Thomas Matthew' Bible appeared, based on
Tindale and Coverdale. But Cromwell wished for another
translation, and Coverdale set to work upon the 'Great Bible',
probably, as Guppy suggests, annotating a copy of the 'Matthew'
Bible. The printing of the Great Bible began in Paris, but owing
to the interference of the Inquisition it had to be completed in
London in April 1539. A second edition of it in April 1540 con-
tained Cranmer's preface. Guppy calls attention to the interest
of the title-page of the Great Bible, reproduced in facsimile.
It is said to have been designed by Holbein and includes
portraits of Henry, Cranmer, and Cromwell. Every parish
church was to exhibit a copy of this Bible, and the first edition
consisted of 2,500 copies. The pamphlet sketches Coverdale's
later life, including his periods of residence abroad, Ms appoint-
ment to the Bishopric of Exeter, and Ms celebrity as a preacher.

An article on the Quartercentenary of the Coverdale Bible
(T.L.S., Oct. 10) deals with some of the bibliograpMcal points
discussed by Guppy, and also calls attention to the Catalogue,
with a long explanatory introduction, of the John Rylands
library exMbition, illustrating the Mstory of the transmission
of the Bible. J. A. Sheppard (ibid., Oct. 17) gave arguments

10 Miles Gov&rdcHe and the English Bible: 1488-1568, by Henry Guppy.
Manchester Univ. Press and John Rylands Library, pp. 30 -f five
facsimiles. Is, (kZ.

168 THE RENAISSANCE

in favour of J, Soter and E. Cervicorrras of Cologne being the
printers of the 1535 Bible, working possibly at Marburg. He
sets forth these arguments more fully, with reproductions of
initials used by the two printers, in The Printers of the Coverdale
Bible, 1535 (Library, Dec.). The same number of The Library
contains an article on Books and Bookmen in the Correspondence
of Archbishop Parker, by W. W. Greg, which includes interesting
references to the Geneva Bible (1560) and the Bishop's Bible
(1568). Greg throws light on Parker's activities as a collector
and an editor and on his relations with printers.

An illustrated article by Kenneth W. Cameron on Coverdale' *s
Bible of 1535 and the Theory of Translation appears in Living
Church, Oct. 5. Cameron discusses the characteristics of Eliza-
bethan translation in general and in relation to the Bible in
particular. He shows why Tyndale's version seemed to Sir
Thomas More and others to encourage heresy, and how Cover-
dale, though he made use of Tyndale among 'five sundry inter-
preters ? , went far to remove the points in which Ms predecessor
had given offence.

In John Skelton : A Genealogical Study (R.E.S., Oct.), H. L. E.
Edwards begins by dissociating the poet's origin from Norfolk,
where Scheltons and Sheltons are plentiful, but not Skeltons,
who are first found in the north of England, especially Cumber-
land and Yorkshire, and before the Tudor period had spread
far and wide. Several of them served in the royal household.
Among these Edwards draws attention to Edward Skelton,
serjeant-at-arms successively to Henry VI, Edward IV, and
Richard III, and pensioned by Henry VII in 1486, as 4 Edward
Skelton, Knight '. A relationship between this Edward and the
poet, 'whether paternal or merely cognate', would account for
the latter's position at the Court of Henry VTs nephew and
other features of his life and writings.

In 1934 Ian A. Gordon drew attention (see The Year's Work,
xv. 151) to a version in Egerton MS. 2642 of the poem 'Of
Tyme *, usually attributed to Skelton, with an additional stanza.
F. M. Salter reports (T.L.S., Jan. 17) that there is another copy

THE RENAISSANCE 169

in the Bannatyne MS. running to eleven stanzas, in Scots
spelling and dialect. As the poem is unassigned by Bannatyne,
and as he includes no other by Skelton, it is possible, as Salter
suggests, that it circulated in Scotland before Skelton was born.
He states that F. Brie would have been additionally justified
in doubting Skelton's authorship, on account of the tone and
quality of the poem, had he seen the Egerton and Bannatyne
versions.

Bernard M. Wagner prints New Songs of the Reign of
Henry VIII in M.L.N. (Nov.). The songs come from MS.
Ashmole 176 in the Bodleian. Ff. 97-101 of this MS. (which are
written in a hand of the second half of the sixteenth century)
contain 18 songs, some of which have been printed in various
collections or periodicals. Wagner reproduces eleven of the
songs, nearly all love-laments, of which only one, 'This nyghtes
rest, this nyghtes rest, adewe farewell this nightes rest', has
been printed before, not quite correctly. This song, of 19 lines,
is the longest of those printed by Wagner. They vary in metre
and rhyme-scheme, and four of them consist of only two long
lines. In none of the eleven reproduced by Wagner is there
internal evidence of date. But as one previously printed is by
Surrey, and another by Cornish, and a third is on Princess
Mary dancing with her father, Wagner is presumably justified
in assigning the collection to Henry VIII's reign.

In the Bulletin de la Faculte des Lettres de Strasbourg (March)
A. Koszul announces his discovery in the University of Stras-
burg library of a copy of Bishop Percy's uncompleted edition
of TotteVs Miscellany. Percy had finished a reprint of the text
about 1767, but intending to add a commentary, lie left the
copies of the work first with Tonson and then with John
Nichols. A fire at his warehouse in February, 1808, destroyed
nearly all the sheets, and the only copy that has hitherto been
traced is in two volumes in the Grenville collection in the
British Museum. It is another copy of the first of these volumes
that has now been found in the Strasburg library. A note in it
shows that it was c a present from the Bishop of Dromore to
J. Price', who was Bodley's librarian, 1768-1813. It afterwards

170 THE RENAISSANCE

belonged to J. Mitford, was sold in 1860 after his death, and

found its way to the Strasburg library in 1893.

On the relation of the rediscovered Harington manuscript
at Arundel Castle to Tottd's Miscellany, see chapter xiv, 351.

In a bibliographical note on A Mirror for Magistrates
(T.L.S., Dec. 28) Fitzroy Pyle joins issue with Lily B. Campbell
in her article on The Suppressed Edition of A Mirror for Magi-
strates (see The Year's Work, xv. 154-5). In opposition to
W. P. Trench Miss Campbell contended that Wayland's pro-
hibited partial edition of A Mirror belonged to 1555. Pyle,
after an examination of her arguments, supports Trench's
date of 1554.

In a leading article on The Tudor Character (T.L.S., May 9),
it is said of Sir Edmund Dyer that "he belonged to the genera-
tion before Ralegh: this was his importance poetically, as a
link between Wyatt and Surrey and the full blossoming towards
the end of the reign. . . . His name was chiefly known, outside
the Court circle, to poets, particularly to those of the next
generation who looked up to biro, as a father in the art. 5

These observations were suggested by the publication of
Ralph M. Sargent's study of Dyer's life and verse. 11

The corpus of verse in the appendix to Sargent's volume has
already been amplified, for Bernard M. Wagner prints in R.E.S.
(Oct.) New Poems by Sir Edward Dyer. These three poems are
included in an Elizabethan poetical miscellany, MS. Harley 7392
(article 2). The miscellany, as Wagner points out, is almost
entirely in the handwriting of St. Lo Knyveton, and from the
character of the hand appears to date from Ms early years at
Gray's Inn, which he entered on 25 May 1584. The first of
the three poems consists of 50 lines assigned in the MS. to
c Dy[erf. Only two lines (9-10) have hitherto been known,
used as an illustration of a figure of speech by the author of
The Arte of English Poesie, from a poem of 'maister Diars'.
The second poem has 30 lines and is assigned in the MS. to
'G.O.R/, and The Arte of English Poesie quotes 11. 27-8 as by

11 See The Fear's Work, xv. 209-10.

THE RENAISSANCE 171

*Maister Gorge ', apparently Sir Arthur Gorges. Lines 29-30 are
quoted without any author being named, but 11. 5-6 and 19-20
are attributed to Dyer. His authorship is therefore doubtful.
The third poem, a lyric of 18 lines, is assigned in the MS. to
4 Dyer', and has hitherto been unknown. MS. Harley 7392
also attributes to Dyer the poem, 'ffayne would I but I dare
not', which in another MS. is ascribed to Sir W. Raleigh.

Claude E. Jones contributes Notes on 'Fulgens and Lucres * to
M.L.N. (Dec.). There are some comments on the relation of
the edition of Medwall's play by the present writer and A. W.
Reed to the Quarto in the Huntington library. Jones adds
some stage-directions and queries whether A and B are boys.

Samuel A. Tannenbaum has a long series of Editorial Notes
on 'Wit and Science 9 in P.Q. (Oct.). He gives an account of
the MS. of the play, though this seems to be based on Farmer's
facsimile, as at the end of the article he notes that since it was
written, W. B. Kempling has examined the MS. and reported to
him. Tannenbaum is of opinion that, with a few slight exceptions,
the transcript of the play was written by one person, even
though not at one sitting, and that therefore the corrections
and alterations cannot be attributed to the author. The notes
deal with a number of peculiarities in the script and are intended
to correct some of the errors in modern editions of Wit and
Science.

Morris P. Tilley's Notes on 'The Marriage of Wit and Wisdom 9
(S.A.B., Jan. and April) have not been available for further
notice.

Harold ZtihlsdorfPs doctoral dissertation on the technique
of the early Tudor interlude 12 is mainly concerned with the
position of John Heywood in the development of English
comedy, and the related wider question of the transition from
medieval to modern drama. Ziihlsdorff discusses first the three
"Debats 3 (Love, Weather, Witty and Witless), and afterwards
what, for reasons given, he calls the e Low-Comedy-Trilogie 7
(Pardoner and Frere, The 4 P. P., Johan Johan). He finds in the

12 Die TechniJc des Jcomischen Zwwch&nspids d&r fruhen Tudorzeit,
von Harold Zuhlsdorff. Berlin: Trilisch und Huther. pp. 77.

172 THE RENAISSANCE

*Debats ganz ahnliche Spuren einer dramatischen Handlungs-
gestaltung . . . wie in den Low-Comedy~InterIudes ? 3 and con-
siders that this supports Heywood's authorship of both groups.
In his attempted dating, however, it is surprising to find
Witty and Witless placed almost last of the six plays.

Zuhlsdorff discusses in detail the influence of French sources
on Heywood. In addition to those that have been indicated
by Karl Young, he points out resemblances between Love and
the f farce inoralisee' of Deux Hommes et leurs deux Femmes.
But, except in Witty and Witless and JoJtan Johan, he finds
few traces of French influence on the technique, as apart from
the content, of the interludes. Alies in allem, die formale
Abhangigkeit Heywoods von den franzosischen Debats ist
gering . . . der Abstand ist der eines anspruchslosen Unter-
haltungsspiels von einem immerhin formal durchgearbeiteten
Kunstwerk.*

Zuhlsdorff then turns to Fulgens and Lucres, and while noting
the debt of Heywood to Medwall, seeks to show that the earlier
dramatist kept the elements of debat and low comedy apart
while his successor combined them. Finally, he considers the
relation of Heywood's interludes to the Moralities, and comes
to the conclusion that there was an English tradition of dramatic
technique c die im geistlichen Drama entsteht, vom weltliehen
Zwischenspiel aufgenommen und dann an die regelrechte
Kom5die, weitergegeben wird'. This dissertation contains
disputable views, but it is thoughtful and scholarly.

In connexion with the question of French influence on
Heywood, Sidney Thomas in Wolsey and French Farces (T.L.S.,
Dec. 7) draws attention to a remarkable statement in a letter,
dated 1 Jan. 1529, from the French ambassador in London to
Montmorency: C I think Wolsey would not be well pleased if
I did not teH you of his causing farces to be played in French,
with great display.'

A reprint of Roister Doister from the unique copy in the
library of Eton College has been issued by the Malone Society. 13

13 Router Doist&ri reprint under the direction of W. W. Greg. Malone
Society Reprints, pp. xiv-f A 2 -! 1 .

THE RENAISSANCE 173

It contains a short introduction which quotes in full the passage
from Thomas Wilson's Rule, of Reason, which establishes
UdalTs authorship. There is the customary list of irregular
and doubtful readings, including explanations of a few unusual
words. There are four collotype reproductions from pages of
the original.

In R.E.S. (Oct.) EL J. Byrom gives particulars of Some Law-
suits of Nicholas Udall. Four of the five suits relate to debts
contracted by Udall between 1536and 1546 'that is, while he
was headmaster of Eton and in the period that intervened
between his dismissal from that post and his rise to prosperity
under Edward VI and Mary*. From one of these cases it
appears that owing to his failure to pay 20 on bond, Udall was
outlawed in the City of London from 25 November 1538 to
late in 1544. Two other cases in which he was not a principal,
about 1547, show that he was then living in the parish of
Christ Church within Newgate, in the precincts of the lately
dissolved Grey Friars.

In connexion with the school play mention may be made of
a series of articles in N. & Q. on Terentius Christianus^ though
the published work falls outside the chronological limits of this
chapter. InN. & Q. (Oct. 19) R. B. Hepple gave some account
of the Latin plays on Biblical themes by Cornelius Schonaeus,
a schoolmaster at Harlem, which were intended to combine
Terentian purity of style with equal moral purity. In an article
(Nov. 2) Edward Bensly gave details of the career of Schonaeus
and drew attention to a statement that the title, Terentius
CJiristianus, was first given to the collection of six of his plays
published in Antwerp in 1598. The subject is discussed
further by Bensly (Nov. 16), Hepple (Dec. 14), and R. S.
Forsythe (Dec. 21).

Celesta Wine discusses in detail in P.M.L.A. (Sept.) Natha-
niel Wood's 'Conflict of Conscience^ of which two issues, with
important differences, appeared in 1581 (see The Tear's Work,
xiv. 172-3), though the date of composition probably falls
within the previous decade. This belated morality is based on

174 THE RENAISSANCE

the career of Francesco Spiera, the Italian lawyer, whose
apostasy from Protestantism brought him into a state of despair
Miss Wine gives an account of the records in various languages
of Ms dreadful experiences. She shows from close verbal
parallels that Wood must have used Edward Aglionby's A
notable and marvellous epistle, a translation of an epistle describ-
ing Spiera's fate by the Italian Matteo Gribaldi. There were
two editions before 1581 of Aglionby's version, in 1550 and 1570,
the latter of which was probably used by Wood. But, as Miss
Wine shows, he drew in addition upon the Bible, the anti-
Catholic literature of the period, the Golden Legend, astrological
writings, and proverbs. He displayed some dramatic instinct
in Ms handling of Ms materials, in Ms development of the
characters of Philologus, who represents Spiera, and in Ms
creation of minor figures. Notable among them is Caconos,
the priest who speaks in a Northern dialect, a peculiarity of
wMch Miss Wine gives more than one possible explanation.

VII

SHAKESPEARE
By ALLABDYCE NICOLL

AMONG the various and varied contributions to the study of
Shakespeare published during the year 1935 perhaps the most
important and significant is Caroline Spurgeon's Shakespeare's
Imagery 1 significant because it indicates one of the ways in
which modern scholarship is adding to our knowledge of the
dramatist, and important because this volume, awaited now for
some considerable time, represents the reasoned conclusions of
many years' detailed investigation. Already, of course, the sub-
ject of Shakespearian imagery has received attention, Wilson
Knight in particular having sought thereby to elucidate the
meaning of the tragedies ; but this book of Miss Spurgeon's is
the first fully to explore the entire field and to seek, by means of
the evidence obtained, a co-ordinated picture of the author from
whose mind these similes and metaphors flowed in such pro-
fusion. Miss Spurgeon's picture is of a man keenly sensitive
to all sights and sounds, quietly observant of the thronging
crowds around him, deeply imbued with a love of nature and,
above all, intensely conscious of everything in life which pos-
sessed movement. In her book we find many things a contrast
between Shakespeare's imaginative power and that of his con-
temporaries, a discussion of the diverse kinds of images in his
work as a whole, and a further discussion of that iterative
imagery which colours individual tragedies and comedies. Who-
soever desires to have these things in tabular form will find them
provided in seven charts, dull squared sheets, no doubt, when
contrasted with the material they record, yet invaluable guides
to an understanding of the arguments presented in the text.
More still does MssSpurgeon give us. Thus in her appendix 'Note
on the "martlet" image', where she suggests that Shakespeare
knew and maybe for a time was resident at Berkeley Castle in

1 Shakespeare* s Imagery and what U teUs us, by Caroline F. E. Spur-
geon. C.TLP. 25$, net. pp. xvi+ 408; 7 charts.

176 SHAKESPEARE

Gloucestershire* she throws out arresting hints to future bio-
graphers of the poet-dramatist.

That this volume cannot be regarded as final and conclusive
Miss Spurgeon herself notes. It must be remembered', she
says, 'that any count of this kind, however carefully done, must
to some extent be an approximate one, dependent on the liter-
ary judgment and methods of the person who has compiled
it.' How true such a statement is and how guarded we must be
in basing opinions on 'images ' of the type selected in this work
is shown by reference to two other recently published books,
Richmond Noble's analysis of Shakespeare's Biblical Knowledge,^
and J. H. E. Brock's study of Hamlet? In contrasting Shake-
speare and Bacon, Miss Spurgeon declares that where the latter
fi noticeably differs 3 from the former

* is in the quantity and range of Ms Biblical images, which are very
numerous, and come next in this respect to those of light and the
body. Bacon's mind is steeped in Biblical story and phrase in a

way of which there is no evidence in Shakespeare Shakespeare's

Biblical comparisons and references which are few are prac-
tically all to well-known characters and incidents, familiar to any
grammar-school boy/

The interest of this judgement lies in the fact that Noble, whose
excellently documented study testifies to the carefulness of his
examination, comes to precisely the opposite conclusions. First,
he shows that there is no likelihood that Shakespeare was taught
the Bible at school Secondly, he believes that the dramatist's
allusions may 'be regarded as inconsistent with a mind impreg-
nated in youth with Scriptural teaching' ; he thinks *it would
be reasonable ... to doubt that Shakespeare was grounded in
the Bible in his home'. Thirdly, he declares that in his 'inter-
pretation and application of Scripture, . . . Shakespeare was
exceptional in his age * and in so far he contrasts him with Bacon
who frequently misinterpreted and misapplied it. Fourthly, one
hundred and fifty pages of his book are devoted merely to list-
ing the unquestioned references to the Bible contained in the

2 Shakespeare's Biblical Knowledge and Use of the Book of Common
Prayer as exemplified in the Plays of the First Folio, by Riclimond Noble.
S.P.C.K. 10s. 6d. pp. xii+303.

3 The Dramatic Purpose of 'Hamlet*, by J. H. E. Brock. Cambridge :
Heffer. 2s. 6d. pp. 48.

SHAKESPEARE 177

plays, with the almost total omission of * allusions to the FaK
of Man, the Cursing of the Earth, the Tenth Commandment, the
Redemption of Man and the Lord's Prayer' precisely the com-
mon themes which Miss Spurgeon believes make up the sum
of Shakespeare's Biblical references. The meticulousness with
which Noble's volume has been prepared is demonstrated by the
fact that he has been at pains to determine both the versions
which Shakespeare must have used and the ways in which he is
likely to have acquired his knowledge of the Bible, and his argu-
ments (such as those on 'the base ludean*) serve to convince us
that indeed his mind was steeped, and steeped deeply, in Scrip-
tural story. Clearly, if we are to use imagery to paint a portrait
of Shakespeare's mind and nature, such a study as Noble's must
be taken to augment or correct Miss Spurgeon's general survey.

Brock's essay on Hamlet strives to emphasize the exactitude
of Shakespeare's insight into human thought and emotion.
Hamlet he finds a 'maniac depressive' type which has been
delineated in an 'exhaustive and masterly' manner. He treats
the Ghost as an evil force, wholly egocentric, striving to play on
the one flaw in Hamlet's nature his tendency to permit pas-
sion to break down the pales and forts of reason. For our
immediate purposes especially important is Brock's emphasis
on one aspect of the hero's personality. That Hamlet was not
interested in politics or military questions he demonstrates:
'There was, however, one subject which at any time could be
relied on to draw Hamlet out of Ms reserve, and that was drama
and the stage.' This judgement Brock proceeds to substantiate by
reference to eleven important passages in the play. Now, in Miss
Spurgeon's tabulation of the 279 images in Hamlet the theatre
is credited with, four contributions, while she draws attention to
the total 'small number from the theatre' in the range of his
dramatic writing. Brock's examples, of course, are not all
'images' in her sense and no question need arise of omission
from her account ; but again we recognize the need of counter-
balancing and augmenting considerations when we depart from
recording and tabulating to the building-up of conclusions based
on such evidence. Miss Spurgeon's work is masterly ; it has con-
tributed much to our knowledge of Shakespeare ; and probably

2762.ie M

178 SHAKESPEARE

it will contribute much, more when sufficient time has pa-ssed for
Its assimilation with the results of other modern investigations,
The discrepancy between her and Noble's statements regard-
ing Shakespeare's Biblical knowledge was noted by Kenneth
Muir in a note on Shakespeare's Imagery (T.L.S., Oct. 17) ; in
her reply Miss Spurgeon observed that the results were bound
to differ in that, while others based their remarks on references,
she based hers on imagery alone. Such a reply emphasizes the
distinctive nature of her work, but it does not explain the dis-
crepancy itself nor does it obviate the difficulty of founding
general { character ' judgements on what is admittedly but part
of Shakespeare's poetic contribution.

Among books essaying to present pictures of the 'essential
Shakespeare', John Mddleton Hurry's is likely to take a high
place. 4 Starting with some brilliantly written pages expressive
of the wonder of the Folio and of the peculiarities of the creative
imagination, Murry endeavours, without departing from known
fact or reasonable conjecture, to set forth his hero's spiritual
history. Cleverly he combines the fragmentary evidence at
our disposal with skilful use of imagery and with impartial
analysis of the plays. This book is one of true criticism: it
shows an alert and interesting mind in contact with master-
pieces. The sonnet-story is capably handled and there are sec-
tions, such as those on King John and The Merchant of Venice,
of particular excellence. Especially noteworthy is Hurry's
treatment of what he calls 'the Shakespeare man 3 who, taking
shape as the Bastard Falconbridge and Mercutio, developed into
Henry V and Hamlet, even at the same time as he split his
personality and became at once Hotspur and Falstaff. As an
interpretation of Shakespeare's entire life-work no less than as
a series of essays devoted to separate plays, Murry 's Shakespeare
must be welcomed.

A lengthy study of Shakespeare and his times has come from
the pen of Joseph Gregor. 5 As may be expected, this book con-

4 SkaJcespeare, by John Middleton Murry. Jonathan Cape. pp. 448
125. 6*.

5 <S7b&eapmre:Z)^w/^ Vienna,
Phaidon-Verlag. pp. 680. BM. 3.75.

SHAKESPEARE 179

siders Shakespeare fundamentally as a dramatist and has much
to say concerning the theatre both of Elizabethan and later
times. The first chapter sketches out the social and artistic
principles operative in the sixteenth century. From that the
author proceeds to an account of the poetic theatre which was
being established in the days when Shakespeare was but a youth
and of the physical stage built up by the actors. The plays, from
Titus Andronicus to Henry VIII, are then set in the frame thus
provided for them and their stage history is surveyed. Gregorys
wide knowledge of the Renaissance theatre and Ms sense of
dramatic values makes this a valuable volume.

Another general book on Shakespeare is M. R. Ridley's * com-
mentary ' issued to accompany the 'New Temple' edition. 6 The
contents give a sketch of the life, brief notes on the plays, an
account of the Elizabethan theatre, a survey of modern textual
method, together with an essay on the language of the plays
(the last contributed by J. N. Bryson). The section which calls
for special attention is that on 'the determination of the text',
since this discusses a subject to which has been devoted much
effort in recent years. Ridley sets forth here the principles which
have guided him in the preparation of Ms edition and not xua-
amusingly gives a number of modern instances to establish
his arguments. From these instances he comes to the conclu-
sion that many 'bibliograpMcal 3 dogmas are untenable or, at
best, may be applied only with reservations. He declares, for
example, that 'the statement, "tMs emendation cannot be
accepted, because it is graphically impossible," is not worth
the paper it is written on'. Already this chapter has met with
considerable comment and discussion.

To the qualities of Shakespeare's verse Richard David con-
fines Mmself in The Janus of Poets J This is a suggestive essay
aiming 'to discover exactly what Shakspere, as a dramatic poet,
was doing, and how he came to do it*. Not least interesting

6 WiUiam Shakespeare: A Commentary, by M. R. Ridley. Dent,
pp. viii+195. 2s.

7 The Janus of Poets: Being an Essay on the Dramatic Value of ShaJc-
spere's Poetry both good and bad, by Richard David. C.U.P. pp. xii+
164. 5s.

180 SHAKESPEAEE

are David's views concerning certain passages of "lofty 3 verse,
which he sees as deliberate burlesque on an artificial style, in-
tended to reveal hypocrisy or self-delusion in the characters
from whose mouths they proceed.

F. Knorr's William Shakespeare (N&ue Jahrbucher fur Wissen-
schaft und Jugewihildwig> 1935, Heft 4) may be mentioned here
as an effort to reach the inner philosophy of the plays a theme
concerning which we may argue with no end. Shakespeare and
the Ordinary Man (Dalhonsie Review, July) is discussed by G. H.
Murphy. There is little of value in the section devoted to the
dramatist in A. J. Russell's Their Religion. 8

No fresh documentary material bearing on Shakespeare's life
has been unearthed recently. In The Name Shakespeare at
Bishop's Tachbrooke (N. and Q. t May 18) E. Vine Hall gives ex-
amples from 1557 to the eighteenth century ; M. Dormer Harris
has another note in N. and Q* (June 1) on Shakespeare and the
Trussds of Billesley. The Arlaud-Duchange Portrait of Shake-
speare is discussed by Giles E. Dawson (Library, Dec.). This
portrait, which appeared in Theobald's edition of 1733 and in
some copies of Eowe's 1709 edition, has been proved to belong
to 1709, with retouchings later. Frederick 0. Wellstood con-
tributes comments on some new documents acquired by the
Birthplace (Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, Feb.).

Various studies have been published during the year on
Shakespeare's artistry. Sir John Squire writes a general book
on Shakespeare as a Dramatist This work carries us over
familiar ground with infectious spirit and enthusiasm. Squire
prefaces his remarks with an introduction in which he contrasts
Shakespeare's outlook with the outlook of modern playwrights ;
much of this has value, but it may be questioned whether any
good can come of imagining Shaw in 1600 or Shakespeare in
1935. There is a certain fan to be derived from such conjec-
tures, yet we must decide that, for critical purposes, they are
useless.

8 Their Religion, by A. J. Russell. Hodder and Stoughton, 1934.
pp. 352. 5s.

9 Shakespeare as a Dramatist, by Sir John Squire. CasselL pp. xi+
233. 8*.6d.

SHAKESPEAEE 181

'Mr. Shaw as an Elizabethan dramatist is inconceivable: imagine
him at the Mermaid calling for water and the whites of poached
eggs. . . . Imagine him trying to persuade Burbage to produce, or
the audience to listen to, a play aimed at improving the sanita-
tion of London'

to such imaginings the only answer is that it were fruitless to
postulate a Shavian intelligence, nurtured by modern ideas, in
a past epoch. That 'Shakespeare suited his age 5 and that Mr.
Shaw suits his ', result from the training and experience of each,
and to divorce training and experience from the man or from
the age in which he lives is misleading. Squire's later remarks
on Plot, Construction, and Dialogue contain much of sterling
value and are inspired by acute observation and innate sense
of appreciation.

A somewhat similar, but considerably more detailed study is
that which Arthur Colby Sprague devotes to Shakespeare and
the Audience ' The fundamental purposes and methods of the
dramatist as illustrated by Shakespeare's practice ' might have
been the title of Sprague's book, which, both because of its
scholarship and of its understanding approach, merits attention.
Starting from fundamental considerations relating to the arts
of drama and novel (with their emphatic truth c The novel
needs all the form it can get') and proceeding through the dis-
cussion of theatrical conventions, exposition, and conclusions,
surprise, testimony, the chorus, heroes, and villains, Sprague
carries us onward with lively interest. His book is one that
should have value not only for students of Elizabethan litera-
ture but for those whose efforts are directed towards the practi-
cal stage of our time ; from his analysis both might learn much.
With Sprague's elaborate survey may be mentioned shorter
essays by Max I. Wolff, Shakespeare und sein Publikum (Shake-
speare- Jahrbuch), and Robert Withington, The Continuity of
Dramatic Development (8.AJB., April); the latter emphasizes
the importance of the public for the theatre, and traces various
dramatic styles dependent upon altering tastes.

10 Shakespeare and the Audience: A Study in the Technique of E%posi~
tion, by Arthur Colby Sprague. Harvard and O.TJ. Presses, pp. xi+
327. 10*. 6d.

182 SHAKESPEARE

A ' moderate' view concerning the judgements of E. E. StolPs
Art and Artifice in Shakespeare is expressed by Moris Delattre
in 'L'lttwAionemotionndle* dans Shakespeare (Rev. Ang.-Amer.,
June). Thomas M. Eaysor writes on The JEsthetic Significance
of Shakespeare's Handling of Time (S. in Ph., April) an impor-
tant article in which arguments are presented for the continuous
performance of the plays. Raysor notes that scenes of * padding '
are invariably introduced to mark the passage of time and re-
gards this as a cardinal element in Shakespearian dramaturgy.
Self-mockery is detected by P. V. KJreider in his article on
Genial Literary Satire in the Forest of Arden (S.A.B., Oct.) ; he
believes that Shakespeare is able, without damaging the spirit
of his comedy, to cast ridicule on the falsity of the conventional
material he is using. Flyting in Shakespeare's Comedies (S.A.B.,
Oct.) is analysed by Margaret Galway. She discovers thirteen
comic 'flytings* of a major sort and many other disguised
examples; the device, she thinks, was currently accepted by
the audience as an element in contemporary drama. Elmer
Edgar Stoll, in The Dramatic Texture of Shakespeare (Criterion,
July), contrasts Shakespeare's methods with those of Ibsen and
of Sophocles. A kindred study by the same author is CEdipus
and Othello: Corneille, Rymer and Voltaire (Eev, Ang.-Amer.,
June). Reviewing the misconceptions of earlier critics, Stoll
decides that 'the greatest, most fruitful situations, which em-
brace more than experience, are necessarily improbable, and
the dramatist's art lies in folly profiting by the liberty thus
attained and also subduing or obscuring the attendant incon-
venience'. Shakespeare is distinguished from other dramatists
by his skill in giving us 'the impression of things coming to us
by brilliant flashes of intuition'. Shakespeare und die HhetoriJc
(Shakespeare-Jahrbuch) forms the subject of an essay by Walter
F. Schirmer.

Shakespeare's wild flowers and other country matters are
surveyed by Eleanour Rohde 11 in a book which should interest
garden-lovers no less than students of Shakespeare. Though

11 Shakespeare's Wild Flowers: Fairy Lore, Gardens, Herbs, Gatherers
of Simples and Bee Lore, by Eleaaour Sinclair Rohde. Medici Society,
pp, 236. Ss. M.

SHAKESPEARE 183

without deep scholarship Miss Rohde succeeds in presenting her
facts in an interesting way and in holding our attention while
she speculates on such topics as the gardens that Shakespeare
knew. The coloured illustrations from Jacques le Moyne de
Morgues add to the attractiveness of the book. On. home-life
in Shakespeare Cumberland Clark has written in the manner
in which he dealt with science and the supernatural. 12 He here
covers all topics from Elizabethan houses, their furniture, gar-
dens, servants, meal-times, and entertainments, to the costume
of their inhabitants. From a variety of diverse sources of in-
formation the author brings clearly before us the domestic life
of Elizabethan England and gathers conveniently together
Shakespeare's references to things of the home.

Shakespeare und die Psychiatric forms a chapter in Alfred E.
Hoche's Aus der Werlcstatt. 1 * An essay on Shakespeare' 'sPsycho-
pathical Knowledge : A Study in Criticism and Interpretation is
contributed by Irving I. Edgar to The Journal of Abnormal and
Social Psychology (April-June). Edgar notes the high esteem
in which the dramatist has been held by medical men for his
acuteness of observation and the psychological interpretation of
his characters. Edgar contributes another article, Shakespeare's
Medical Knowledge : A Study in Criticism , to Annals of Medical
History. In this he relates the dramatist's learning in medical
science to the opinions and theories of his contemporaries. Andre
Adries has an interesting study of contemporary medical know-
ledge and of Shakespeare's treatment of various abnormalities. 14

Many studies of Shakespearian characters have appeared
during the year. John W. Draper continues his well-known
series of essays with Ophelia and Laertes (P.Q., Jan.), Lord
Chamberlain Polonius (ShaJcespeare-Jahrbwh), Hamlet's School-
fellows (Eng. Stud., lix, Heft 3), Shakespeare's Italianate
Courtier, Osric (Rev. de Litt. Comp., April-June), and Usury
in 'The Merchant of Venice' (Mod. Phil., Aug.). The Polonius 1

12 Shakespeare and Home Life, by Cumberland dark. Williams and
Norgate. pp. 256. 10*. M.

13 Aus der Werkstatt, von Alfred E. Hoche. Munich, J. E. Lekmann's
Verlag. pp. vi+259. EM. 6.

14 Shakespeare et lafolie: tiude medico-psychologize, by Andr6 Adries.
Paris, Librairie Maloine. pp. 315.

184 SHAKESPEARE

family, he notes, runs "true to Elizabethan type 5 . Its solid-
arity is characteristic. 'Not heredity 3 , Draper avers, 'but en-
vironment in the form of social status, dominates the plot of
Hamlet' What may be styled the 'Draper' method is pursued
by Nadine Page in Beatrice: 'My Lady Disdain' (H.L.N., Dec.)
and in The Public Repudiation of Hero (P.M.L.A., Sept.).
Beatrice is viewed as fi a character well developed according to
Renaissance ideals of the "free 5 ' woman \ while Hero's un-
fortunate lot is interpreted according to the prevailing standards
of the time. AMn to these articles is Z. S. Fink's Jaques and
the Makontent Traveller (P.Q., July), in which an attempt is
made to demonstrate that, in spite of the discrepancy of opinion
concerning him, Jaques is a true picture of the contemporary
traveller viewed as a 'malcontent' or melancholic type. With
Fink's article may be associated a carefully wrought essay on
Jaques by Oscar James Campbell (Huntington Library Bulle-
tin, Oct.). Campbell believes that the use of the term 'malcon-
tent 3 in the sixteenth century was so inexact that the public
could not have visualized from the word c any clearly defined
type of eccentric'. Jaques, he thinks, 'was presented at first
in a way which would inevitably suggest to an Elizabethan
audience a man of natural phlegmatic temperament' ; on this
general judgement Campbell gives many interesting comments,
particularly on the neglected 'adustion* or burning of the hum-
ours. In thus presenting Jaques Shakespeare seemingly had a
satiric purpose and in so far the dramatist draws near to the
aims of the band of satirists who stirred London about the year
1 600. ' The appearance of Jaques, then, signalizes Shakespeare's
first participation in the satiric movement, which after 1599
began to capture English comedy.' Both Fink's article and
that of Campbell should be compared with Kreider's notes on
literary satire, cited above.

On Shakespeare's Miranda Marie H. Sturgiss writes in S.A.B.
(Jan.). This heroine, a combination of the ideal and the actual,
die sees as based mainly on contemporary conceptions of
womanly grace and virtue. Harold E. Walley discusses Shake-
speare's Portrayal of Shylock in The Parrott Presentation Volume
(pp. 213-42). 15 In this Walley treats Shylock as a consistently

15 Essays in Dramatic Literature: The Patrol Presentation Volume,

SHAKESPEARE 185

presented villain, and refuses to admit that there is any possi-
bility of viewing Mm sympathetically. Particularly on the
theory 'that Shakespeare's character simply got out of hand
and proceeded to play tricks upon his creator' does he pour
Ms ridicule. Comments of tMs kind by Quiller-Couch he dis-
misses as 'mere whistling in the dark. However the leisure of
prose narrative may allow unpremeditated pMlanderings, the
economy of the stage is otherwise. Drama is a strict art, and
has no place for pointless digressions. ' This may be true, yet
digressions, pointless and otherwise, do creep into individual
plays, and more than one modern playwright has left record of
the way in wMch Ms characters have so gripped the imagination
that the creative artist lay helpless in their power. On Shake-
speare's acute observation of the Jewish attitude there is a note
in Shakespeare's Jew (Bulletin of the John Eylands Library, Jan.).
The same journal presents BL B. Charlton's racy and penetrat-
ing essay on Fdlstaff. The possibility that Walley denies is here
admitted : In the sheer abandon of [Shakespeare's] imaginative
fervour, FalstafE and the circumstances he overcomes are pro-
jected by the unthinking zest of the author's imaginative appre-
hension, and shape themselves into a coherent universe wMch
the play makes for itself.' The conflict between this universe and
the universe without causes, in Charlton's view, Shakespeare's
'bitter disillusionment and his willingness to call the contemp-
tible caricature of The Merry Wives by the name of Sir John
Palstaff '. 'Falstaff and Ms friends' are examined also by Cum-
berland Clark. 16 Hubertis Cummings in For Shakespeare's Ham-
let (The Parrott Presentation Volume, pp, 87-102) attempts to
escape from modern critical theories and to present the whole-
ness of conception in Shakespeare's hero. J. E. Baker's The
Philosophy of Hamlet (ibid., pp. 455-70) discusses the dramatic
philosophy of the prince and shows its connexions with Platonic
idealism. In Hamlet the Man 17 E. E. Stoll inquires how the

by pupils of Professor Thomas Marc Parrott, ed. by Hardin Craig.
Princeton and O.TJ. Presses, pp* viu+470. 21s.

16 Falstqff and his Friends, by Cumberland Clark. Shrewsbury:
Wilding, pp. 135. 5s.

17 Hamlet the Man, by Elmer Edgar Stoll. (English Association Pam-
phlet 91.) pp. 29. 2s. 6d.

186 SHAKESPEARE

dramatist 3 having "dispensed with a psychology 5 , succeeds in
making a living character 'out of all this highly coloured abun-
dance, or indeed in spite of it * . W. J. Lawrence in 'To Be or Not
to Be': A Revelation (Life and Letters, Dec. 1934) argues that
originally Hamlet's soliloquy stood earlier in the play ? that it
contains autobiographical material, and that Hamlet's uncer-
tainty concerning the ghost is the motive force in the tragedy.
Hamlet's sanity is asserted by Fayette C. Ewing. 18 Lorenz
Morsbach devotes a pamphlet to surveying Shakespeare's treat-
ment of Julius Caesar. 19

The question of "The Genuine Text' has occupied consider-
able attention lately. C. S. Lewis (T.L.S., May 2) believes we
must take the prompt-text as our basis, accepting anything
which Shakespeare did not specifically disclaim. Certain duties,
he observes, were delegated to the prompter and accordingly,
since we are considering plays and not poems, the latter's con-
tributions must be incorporated in our final count. The same
subject is dealt with by J. D. Wilson (ibid., May 16) who refers
to the 'complete 5 Hamlet, which he decides is an incomparable
acting drama and represents Shakespeare's full intention. To
this view C. S. Lewis (ibid.. May 23) demurs, while W. J. Law-
rence (ibid., May 23) draws attention to the fact that the 'com-
plete' text of Hamlet is confused and, in any case, is the work
of latter-day editors. This theme is discussed further by J. D.
Wilson (ibid., May 30 and June 13), M. R. Ridley (ibid., May 30),
W. W. Greg (ibid., June 6), and W. J. Lawrence (ibid., June 6).

The discussion concerning a ' Pocket Shakespeare' also con-
tinues. 20 Mrs. 0. W. Campbell started this ball once more a-
rolling by criticizing some readings in the 'New Temple 5 Hamlet
(TJtJS., June 20): to this M. R. Ridley replied (June 27). In
succeeding issues of the same journal (July 4, July 18, and
August 8) Peter Alexander, Mrs. Campbell, and Ridley pur-
sued the question further.

18 Hamlet. An Analytic and Psychologic Study, by Fayette C. Ewing.
Boston, Stratford Co. pp. 32. 50 cents.

19 Shakespeares Casarbttd, von Lorenz Morsbach, Halle, Max Me-
meyer. pp. 32. BM. 1.80.

20 See The Year's Work, xv, 162.

SHAKESPEARE 187

B. B. McKerrow provides A Suggestion regarding Shakespeare's
Manuscripts (R.E.S., Oct.). The suggestion is that irregularity
in character names indicates that the text is derived from the
author's manuscript. McKerrow conjectures that the author
has here varied his designation in accordance with his shifting
attitude towards the creatures of his imagination.

The controversy concerning the use of shorthand continues.
W. Matthews, writing on Shakespeare and the Reporters (Library,
March), emphasizes once more the fact that the Bales and
Bright systems must be taken together and declares that the
use of these would have been wholly unsuitable for the reporting
of plays. Even sermons, he notes, could not thus be taken down
verbatim. The same author, in Peter Bales, Timothy Bright and
William Shakespeare (J.E.G.P., Oct.), discusses in full the prin-
ciples of Bales's Brachygraphy and usefully reprints the tables
in that book. The Quarto of King Lear' and Bright 9 s Shorthand
(Mod. Phil., Nov.) is dealt with by Madeleine Doran. Referring
to Quincy Adams's article of 1933, 21 she points out that many
passages have been printed correctly and believes that this
would have been almost impossible by the use of Bright's
system. Her examination of the text is long and detailed, an
important contribution to the study of the quarto. Edward
Hubler, in The Verse Lining of the First Quarto of 'King Lear y
(Parrott Presentation Volume, pp. 421-41) also believes that re-
porting need not be the explanation of the peculiarities of this
text. In his discussion he compares the quarto with that of
Heywood's If You Know Not Me.

Robert M. Smith, writing on An Interesting First Folio
(S.A.B., Jan.), gives notes on the copy with manuscript correc-
tions brought to light by Gabriel Wells in 1934. The more
important of these corrections are here recorded. An important
list of quartos at present beatable is presented by Henrietta 0.
Bartlett in First Editions of Shakespeare's Quartos (Library,
Sept.). Brief notes on The Folger Folios are contributed by
Robert M. Smith (T.L.S., March 7). Dudley Hutcherson writes
on the Virginia set of Forged Quartos (T.L.S., Jan. 3). Sir

21 See The FeorV Work, xiv. 183.

188 SHAKESPEARE

Sidney Lee had argued that these originally came to the library
as separate items, but Hutcherson, using an old catalogue entry,
demonstrates that they were presented in one volume before
the year 1828. An interesting note on Charles Jennens as Editor
of Shakespeare (Library, Sept.) is contributed by Gordon Crosse.
His judgement is that Jennens, although eccentric, was consider-
ably ahead of his time in editorial ideals. In An Unchronided
Shakespeare Edition (TJ/.8., Nov. 2) Davidson Cook notes a
hitherto unrecorded Popular Dramatic Works of William Shake-
speare in six volumes, undated but belonging to about 1800.

Many fresh problems relating to the text spring obviously from
J, Dover Wilson's recent work on Hamlet, to an editor the most
puzzling of all plays. The year 1935 has seen the appearance
of Wilson's critical essay on the drama What Happens in
Hamkt ' . 22 This is a book which cannot adequately be dealt with
here. No subtler or more arresting interpretation of Shake-
speare's masterpiece has been written and its closely-knit argu-
ments will, it is certain, engage the attentions of many students
to come. Wilson has endeavoured to hold a balance between an
'historical* and a creatively interpretative study of the play.
Rightly, he emphasizes the need of understanding current Eliza-
bethan ideas concerning the nature of ghosts, without which we
must fail to appreciate the purposes of the dramatist and the
original reactions of a Globe audience in 1603. By applying his
knowledge of Renaissance fencing methods, too, Wilson has
succeeded in throwing fresh light on the concluding scene of
almost universal carnage. In these things the author is on sure
ground, but, as he himself recognizes, the play of Hamlet is
fraught with doubts and problems, so that other of his conjec-
tures may be regarded with something of a critical suspicion.
Particularly questionable is the treatment of the dumb-show
scene. Why, he asks, does Claudius not recognize the parallel
to his crime before ever the player-villain utters the speech
which presumably Hamlet has given him to con? Wilson's
solution is a dever one; Hamlet, he thinks, did not expect the
dumb-show and, when he sees the players well on their way

22 What Happens in ^Hamlet*, by J. Dover Wilson. C.IJ.P. pp. viii+
334. 12*. 6*.

SHAKESPEARE 189

thus to bungle Ms ' mouse-trap \ displays his annoyance and
perturbation in his words to Ophelia ; luckily for him, however,
Claudius is so intent on watching his nephew that he misses all
this preliminary 'argument' of the players and so comes to the
spoken drama innocent of what must follow. On paper, Wilson's
defence of this interpretation is convincing ; but Hamlet is not a
mere collection of words set in lines upon paper sheets it is a
play, and as a play must be construed. So considered, it is
evident that no spectator ignorant of the Hamlet theme could
possibly follow so tortuous a dramatic procedure. That specta-
tor has been told that the play-within-the-play is to be a test,
and accordingly, when the court assembles, his attention will
be fixed on this new element in the action. Even if, following
Horatio, he turns his gaze on Claudius, he could not conceivably
watch, first, the players' action, secondly, the King, and thirdly,
Hamlet, all at once. No self -respecting playwright would expect
so much and we cannot imagine that Shakespeare, apt in these
matters, would have let the scene stand so without a word of
explanation. Were proof needed of the impossibility of this inter-
pretation, the performance of the play by the Marlowe Society
would provide it. There the Wilson procedure was followed,
but, even to those familiar with What Happens in 'Hamlet \ the
points could not adequately be conveyed by actors to audience.
One may question, too, the interpretation of the e Fishmonger 3
and 'Nunnery' scenes. Wilson believes that Hamlet has over-
heard the talk of 'loosing' Ophelia upon him, has interpreted
that word in a gross way, and accordingly treats Ophelia as a
whore and her father as a procurer. Again, the paper argument
for this is convincing, but its manipulation on the stage leaves
us confident that, had Shakespeare so intended it, he would
have made his purposes clearer in actual words. Much may be
allusive and suggestive in these plays, but rarely does Shake-
speare fail to provide clues to the interpretation of such scenes
as those described. Concerning a motive there may be doubt,
for there we are in the midst of the mysteries of the human
spirit even concerning relationships between character and
character we may be unsure but where dramatic business is in
question Shakespeare, knowing his trade and the limitations of
an audience, usually is a consummate and exact practitioner.

190 SHAKESPEARE

Wilson's reconstructed history of the Hamlet text is challenged
by E. K. Broadus in Polonius (Univ. of Toronto Quarterly 9
April). He decides that Der bestrafte Br^ermord represents
an early version of the play, and argues that old Corambus was
later reworked into a Polonius who caricatured Burghley . Ham-
lets Verschickung nach England (Archiv, clxviL 3 and 4) is care-
fully examined for its dramatic purpose by E. Weigelin. Levin
L. SchiicHng discusses The Churchyard-scene in Shakespeare's
'Hamlet', V, i (R.E.S., April), arguing that this episode was a
later insertion devised, first, to provide dramatic interest for
the end of the play, and, second, to throw additional emphasis
on Hamlet's passion. There has been some considerable debat-
ing concerning Hamlet's Own Lines the lines he gave to the
players. E. H. C. Oliphant (T.L.S., Aug. 29) thinks there can
be no doubt but that these were the verses beginning ' Faith,
I must leave thee, love'. George Sampson (ibid., Sept. 5) tries
to show the absurdity of treating an imaginary Hamlet as if he
were a real person; Fitzroy Pyle (ibid., Sept. 12) also asserts
that the attempt to identify the precise lines overlooks the
rules of dramatic art. In 'The Murder of Gonzago* : A Probable
Source for 'Hamlet 3 (M.L.JR., Oct.) G. Bullough draws attention
to the circumstances surrounding the death of Francesco Maria
I della Rovere, duke of Urbino. Poisoning was suspected and
some persons accused Luigi Gonzaga, marchese di Castelgof-
fredo. Bullough finds the influence of these events both in the
play-within-the-play and in the main text. John Purves thinks
The Dumb-Show in 'Hamlet' (TJ,JS., Sept. 19) is more in the
nature of an abbreviated commedia ddl'arte show than in that
of a mere 'argomento 3 . In The Rugged Pyrrhus and Hamlet
(T.L.8., Nov. 23) H. W. Grande! argues that the player's speech
must be seriously intended and written by Shakespeare. Alfred
Kelcy contributes various Notes on 'Hamlet' to S.A.B. (July).
'Too too suttied Mesh 9 is further examined by J. D, Wilson,
W. L. Renwick, and G. M. Young in T.L.S. (Jan. 3, Jan. 10,
Jan. 17, and Jan. 24). H. W. Crundell also writes on the phrase
in N. and Q. (Feb. 16), noting an apparent reminiscence in
Donne which pointsto 'sallied 5 or 'solid' rather than to 'sullied'.
An anonymous writer, in "Hamlet': A Query (N. and Q.,
June 15) interprets 'wild' in the phrase 'men's minds are wild'

SHAKESPEARE 191

as meaning * bewildered". Karl Young writes of I. ii. 186-8, in
The Interpretation of a Passage in 'Hamlet' (M.L.E., July). He
argues that Horatio's lines should be punctuated to read C I saw
him once, a j was a goodly King '.

C. G. Beckingham, writing on 'Othello' and 'Revenge for
Honour' (R.E.S., April), notes a parallel in the latter which
justifies the reading of 'Indian' in Othdk y v. ii, 347. R. A. Law
supports Tucker Brooke's interpretation of 'Almost damrid in
a fair wife' (i. L 21) in Univ. of Texas Studies in English (July).
Elaboration of Setting in * Ofkdlo 3 and the Emphasis of the Tragedy
is examined by Julia Grace Wales (Transactions of the Wisconsin
Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, xxix. 319-40) . She demon-
strates the rich use of local colour in this play and discusses
Othello as a 'barbarian 5 . Andrew S. Cairncross endeavours to
establish The Date of 'Othello 9 (T.L.S., Oct. 24). He observes
that certain passages in the bad quartos seem to be taken from
earlier plays, and, finding such use of both Othello and Pericles
in this way, he argues that these two dramas must have been
conceived before 1602. Richmond Noble (ibid., Dec. 14) deems,
from the presence of a singing boy in all, that Hamlet, Twelfth
Night, and Othello must all date between 1601 and 1603.

G. B. Harrison writes on The Background to 'King Lear 9 : A
Time of Troubles and Portents (T.L.S., Dec. 28). This tragedy
was acted at court on 26 December 1606, and has borrowings
from Harsnett (entered in the Stationers* Register on 16 March
1603). 'The events of the months between March, 1603, and
December, 1606,' declares Harrison, not quite logically, 'will
therefore be the contemporary background to King Lear. * De-
ciding categorically that Raleigh was one of the 'Main and Bye*
plotters (a fact not wholly established by contemporary evi-
dence), he endeavours to show that the play is inspired by the
general feeling of horror and apprehension at this time. King
Lear, m. vi. 6-7, occupies the attention of F. E. Budd in Shake-
speare, Chaucer and Harsnett (R.E.8., Oct.). The phrase 'Nero
is an Angler in the Lake of Darknesse ' Budd cleverly identifies
by reference to his sources. He is no doubt justified in declaring
that this reveals Shakespeare's mental processes fiend, fiddler,
and the lake of darkness getting telescoped in his mind. In

192 SHAKESPEARE

A Note on 'King Lear', I. IT. 364-7 (N. and Q., Jan. 26), H. W.
Crundell proposes * attach *d* for the 'attask'd 5 of the second
quarto. Metrisch-grammatisches zu Shakespeares 'King Lear'

(A?iglia, July) occupies the attention of Wilhelm Franz.

Walter Clyde Curry's Macbeth's Changirig Character (J.E.G.P.,
July) is a 'philosophical' study of the play wherein the hero is
related to scholastic ideas of good and evil. The 'principles of
scholastic philosophy ', believes Curry, 'have exerted a forma-
tive influence upon Shakespeare's conception of Macbeth 's
changing character 5 . Exemplum Materials underlying 'Macbeth'
(P.M.LJL., Sept.) are noted by Beatrice Daw Brown. This is
an interesting essay in which an endeavour is made to show how
various moralized tales have been incorporated in the drama.
Certain points may be overstressed, but the main argument is
good. Alois Brandl in Zwr Qudle des 'Macbeth' (Eng. Stud.,
Ixx. 1) examines the chronicles of Hector Boethius, John Bel-
lenden, and Holinshed. Sere' 5 thinks C. T. Onions, in Macbeth,
v. iii. 23, is to be taken as a noun meaning 'withered state'
(T.L.S., Oct. 24).

The Original Staging of 'Romeo and Juliet', Act III, scene V
(TJ/JS., Sept. 19) is examined by W. J. Lawrence. He casts
ridicule on those who believe there was a shifting here from
upper stage to lower a hopelessly untheatric device. George
Sampson also writes on this theme (ibid., Nov. 9) and remarks
adversely on various modern stage-directions. A. Trampe Bodt-
ker discusses Arthur Brooke and his Poem (JEng. Stud., Ixx. 1).
In Titus Andronicus, n. iii. 124^6 (T.L.S., Dec. 7), Walter
Worrall would read 'that painted hobby *, identifying this as
a kind of trap to catch birds, a painted piece of wood.

Fred Sorensen writes on 'The Masque of the Muscovites' in
Love's Labour's Lost (M.L.N., Dec.). He notes the description
of a "Russian' masking of 1510 at the court of Henry VIII,
given in Hall's Chronicles and repeated in the Holinshed of 1587.
This, rather than the Gray's Inn Revels of 1595, may have been
Shakespeare's source. Burns Martin in A Midsummer Night's
Dream (T.L.8., Jan. 24) wonders whether that play might not
have been composed for the double wedding of Lady Elizabeth

SHAKESPEARE 193

and Lady Katherine Somerset to Henry Guildford and William
Petre on 8 November 1596. In Die Entstehung des Sommer-
nachtstraums (Anglia, July) Wolfgang Keller identifies this occa-
sion with the marriage of Countess Mary of Southampton to Sir
Thomas Heneage on 2 May 1594, incidentally demonstrating
the play's connexion with Lyly 's Galathea. Allison Grow inquires
Is Shakespeare's 'Much Ado ' a Revised Earlier Play ? (P.M.L.A.,
Sept.). This is a very careful and logically worked-out paper,
arguing against the existence of an earlier version whether writ-
ten by Shakespeare or another. Naturally his discussions are
concerned mainly with the theories presented in the 'New Cam-
bridge* edition. William T. Hastings provides several Notes on
6 All's Well that Ends Weir (S.AJB., Oct.). These concern, first,
the use of two Frenchmen described as G. and E. Hastings
argues that in n. i and m. i there were two brothers Dumain,
and that Parolles 5 man may be identified as ' 1. Lord ', 'Lord G.',
and 'French G.'. The two Lords of I. ii and the two Gentlemen
of m. ii were not, in his opinion, the Dumains. A second note
discusses the position of the King in n. i: Hastings believes that
the Folio is correct and that this character does not leave the
stage. Accounting for Irregularities in Cloten (S.A.B., April),
Wendell Magee Keck believes that Robert Aomin played both
Cloten and the First Gaoler ; it is farther suggested that he may
have been responsible for writing or for revising some scenes,
thus creating the inconsistencies noted. The sources, problems,
and stage history of The Comedy of Errors have been surveyed
by Marianne Labinski ; 23 she also provides notes for a modem
production of the play. An important survey, introducing rich
material on Renaissance theories concerning the supernatural,
is Walter Clyde Curry's Sacerdotal Science in Shakespeare's * The
Tempest' (Archiv, Oct., Dec.). The relationship between Cali-
ban and theories regarding the savage occupies the attention of
Hans Neuhof in Die Calibangestalt in ShaJcespeares 'Sturm*
(Germanisch-romanische Monatsschrift, March-April).

A. L. Everett supports Peter Alexander's view in A Note on
Shakespeare's 'Henry VP (S.A.B., April). W. W. Greg in

23 Shakespeares Komodie der Irrungen: Das Werk und seine Gesfadtung
auf der Biihne, von Marianne Labinski. Diss., Breslau, 1934. pp. 98.

2762.16 -

194 SHAKESPEARE

'Henry VP and the Contention Plays (P.M.L.A., Sept.) reviews
an article by Greer, originally printed in 1933. 24 Another article
of 1933, 25 by R. B. McKerrow, forms the basis of Lucille Bang's
( 2a<nd 3 Henry Vr-^^wUch Holinshed? (P.MJ/.A., Sept.). From
an examination of the Folio text she decides that the edition of
1587, and not that of 1577, was used by the author. Shake-
speare's Debt to Hall and Holinshed in 'Bichard III' (8. in Ph.,
April) is discussed by Edleen Begg. Her judgement is that
Shakespeare studied both accounts with equal care and made
free use of both. There is, she declares, 'no main historical
source' for the play. In an interesting paper on 2 Henry IV
Marion A. Taylor essays to show How Falstaff brought Holin-
shed up to date (S.A.B., July). Taylor notes the reference in the
play to Sir John CoMle of the Dale. Such a person is named
among others in Holinshed, but she believes that his singling-out
here is due to the presence in London at that time of a notorious
Scots traitor named John Colville. This man's adventuresome
but iniquitous career she traces at length and hazards the sug-
gestion that he was a figure well-known to Shakespeare's
audiences. Hall and Holinshed also occupy the attention of
Karl Otto Braun in a carefully executed study. 26 A. E. M. Kirk-
wood writes on King Richard the Second? 1 In this essay he
examines the place of Richard II among the histories, its debt
to Holinshed, and its tragic import. The Non-Shakespearian
4 Richard IP and Shakespeare's 'Henry IV \ Part I (S. in Ph.,
April) is examined by John James Elson. This play, Egerton
1994 (Thomas of Woodstock), Elson thinks Shakespeare saw
before writing 1 Henry IF. He finds that, although it has small
connexion with Richard II, it influenced the conception of Fal-
staff. J. M. Purcell writes on The Date of 1 Henry IV'(N. and Q.,
June 1), with special reference to Gabriel Harvey's apparent
allusions to it in 1592. In Hotspur's Earthquake (M.L.N.,
March) Don Cameron Allen discusses 1 Henry IF, in. L 28-33,

24 See The Tear's Work, siv. 182-3.

25 See The Tear's WorJc 9 xiv. 182.

26 Die Szemnentfuhrung in den Shakespeare*$chm Historien: Ein
Vergleich mit Holinshed und Hall, von Kari Otto Braun. Wiirzburg,
Bichard Mayr. pp. 177.

27 King Richard the Second, by A. E. M. Kirkwood. Adelaide, F. W.
Preece. pp. 24.

SHAKESPEARE 195

and shows that the theory of imprisoned winds, although based
on Plutarch and Pliny, was influenced by medieval ideas. Nook-
ShoUm in Henry V is provided with a note by Allen Mawei
(T.L.S., July 25). He draws attention to a place-name in
Warwickshire which seems to show that the phrase signified
'running out into angles or corners 5 .

Miscellaneous notes are provided by Arnold Schroer in Shake-
speareana (Anglia^ July); these concern 'kind' in Hamlet, I. ii,
65, 'unbonneted' in Othdio, I. ii. 23, and c cadent 5 in Lear, I. iv,
307. Die Bedeutungsentwicklung von Road bei ShaJcespean
(Anglia, July) by Max Deutschbein carefully traces the origin
and uses of the word up to and through Shakespeare's works.

The New Temple Shakespeare, edited by M. B. Ridley, and
The New Eversley Shakespeare, under the general editorship oJ
Guy Boas, both incorporate the results of modern textual re-
search. George SkUlan has edited The Merchant of Venice foi
acting purposes. 28 Othello, Twelfth Night> and A Midsummer
Night's Dream have been added to the Sansoni Shakespeare. 2 *

Among the articles listed above several deal with stage prob-
lems. This subject is dealt with specifically in some othei
contributions. Theodore B. Hunt, reconstructing The Scenes
as Shakespeare saw them (Parrott Presentation Volume, pp. 205-
11), argues that many indications of place in modern texts are
essentially false ; as an example he demonstrates that the author
thought of Hamlet, n. ii, not as 6 A Room in the Castle 5 , but as
'a lobby' or loggia out of doors. George William Small writes
on Shakspere's Stage (S.AJB. 9 Jan.) ; he would reject the evidence
of the Messalina and Eoxana prints.

The question of sources, likewise dealt with incidentally above,
has occupied some special attention. Alwin Thaler, in a signi-
ficant paper on Shakespeare and Spenser (S.A.B., Oct.), lays
emphasis on the neglected indebtedness of the dramatist to the

28 The Merchant of Venice, prepared with prompt notes and designs
by George Skillan. French. 2s. Qd.

29 Otetto ...La NoUe deWEpifania . * . Soyno ffuna notte d> estate (trans
lated by Raffaello Piccoli, Aurelio Zanco, and Guilia Celenza, re
spectively). Florence, Sansoni. Lire 12, 8, and 12.

196 SHAKESPEAE1

poet. He succeeds in demonstrating a constant series of reminis-
cences, mostly of a subtle kind, which has caused them to escape
the notice of those engaged in the pursuit of verbal echoes. In
The Influence of Seneca (ibid., July) Samuel A. Small shows
what the English playwrights owed to their Roman predecessor :
with this article may be associated an anonymous Ghost Tech-
nique in Shakspere (ibid., July). T. W. Baldwin, providing A
Note upon William Shakespeare's Use of Pliny (Parrott Presenta-
tion Volume, pp. 157-82), denies that the dramatist used Hol-
land's version of the Natural History (1601). In a comment upon
Shakespeare, Lylyand 'j$3sop j (N. and Q., May 5), H. W. Crun-
dell discusses the use of a fable in Sndimion and reminiscences
of it in 2 Henry VI and Gymbeline. W. B. Drayton Henderson
writes on Shakespeare's 'Troilus and Cressida': yet deeper in its
Tradition (Parrott Presentation Volume, pp. 127-56) ; there he
shows that, while Shakespeare drew from many sources, includ-
ing Chaucer, Caxton, and Chapman, the most important source
of all was Lydgate, who gave him not only facts but a charac-
teristic approach. Even the word 'Degree', so important for
an appreciation of the play, derived thence.

James G. McManaway has a note on 'Richard III' an the
Stage (T.L.8., June 27) ; this play, he observes, must have been
acted during the Eestoration period, probably about 1684-5,
the evidence deriving from a manuscript list of parts in a 1634
quarto owned by Quaritch. Montague Summers (ibid., July 4)
points out that this revival is dealt with in his The Playhouse of
Pepys ; he would date it between 1688 and 1690. An interesting
study of The Shakespearian Productions of John Philip KembU
has been prepared by Harold Child. 30 This clearly and effectively
sets forth Kemble's importance in the ranks of producers.

Elfriede Probst examines the influence of Shakespeare on
Swinburne. 31 The Influence of Shakespeare on Smollett is analysed
by George Morrow Kahrl (Parrott Presentation Volume, pp.
399-420). Heinz Wohlers discusses some of the characteristic

30 The Shakespearian Productions of John Philip Kemble, by Harold
Child. O.TLP. for the Shakespeare Association, pp. 22. 2s.

31 Der Einfluss ShaJcespeares auf der Stuart-Tnlogie Swiriburnes, von
Elfriede Probst. Diss., Munich, 1934. pp. 48.

SHAKESPEAEE 197

tendencies in Dr. Johnson's notes on Shakespeare. 32 Pro-
ducing many parallels, Paul Steck has an interesting paper
on Schiller und Shakespeare in the Shakespeare- Jahrbuch.
The same journal contains a note by H. von Langermann
on Sin Brief des Graf en Wolf Baudissin uber die Vollendung
der Schlegel-Tieckschen Shakespeare-Ubersetzung. Shakespeare's
Sonnets in Germany forms the theme of an appreciative study
by Ludwig W. Kahn. 33 In Shakespeare and a Poor Swiss Peasant
(Books Abroad, Autumn) Roy Temple House draws attention
to UMch Braker, author of studies published many years later
in the Shakespeare- Jahrbwh. Tolstoi's attitude to the plays is
dealt with by Rudolf Wassenberg. 34

The Comtesse de Chambrun has now issued in English her
novel on Shakespeare's life. 35 The appearance of the French
edition was noted in The Tear's Work, xv. 180. A comment on
the T.L.S. review of this book was contributed by the author
to that journal on 14 March. Louis Mandin in Shakespeare et
les moutons savants (Mercure de France, June) deals with various
recent theories concerning Bacon and Derby. Mathias Mohardt
in the same magazine (April) A la rech&rche de Shakespeare:
L'identification de Malvolio takes Alwin Thaler's conjectural
identification of Malvolio and William Ffarington as the basis
for averring that the plays were written by William Stanley,
sixth earl of Derby.

Mention should be made here of the various bibliographical
aids to the study of Shakespearian literature. S. A, Tan-
nenbaum's Classified Bibliography, 1934, appears in S.A.B.
(Jan.). The Shakespeare-Jahrbuch contains its familiar sections
the 'Biicherschau' by Wolfgang Keller, the 'Zeitschriffcen-

32 Der personliche Gehalt in den Shakespeare-Noun Samuel Johnsons,
von Heinz Wohlers. Bremen: Wohlers und Briekwedde. pp. 95.

33 Shakespeares Sonette in DentscMand: V&rsuch einer Uterarischen
Typologie, von Ludwig W. Kahn. Bern and Leipzig: Gotthelf Verlag.
pp. 122. RM. 4.

34 Tolstois Angriffauf Shakespeare: Ein Beitrag zur Charakterisierung
ostlichen und westlichen Schopfertums, von Rudolf Wassenberg. Diissel-
dorf, Dissertations-Yerlag G. H. Nolte. pp. 45.

35 My Shakespeare, Rise! Recollections of John Lacy, one of His Majesty's
Players, by C. Longworth de Chambrun. With Preface by Andr6
Maurois. Stratford-on-Avon ; Shakespeare Press : London ; Lippincott.
pp. xvi+366. 7s. Qd.

198 SHAKE3PEABE

sehau 5 by Hubert Pollert and J. W. Kindervater, tlie 'Theater-
schau' by E. L. StaH and Erika Anders, besides tine
bibliography for 1932-3 by Anton Preis. In A Stern' st
Goodnight to ShaJcspere? (American Scholar, Spring) William

T. Hastings comments on the most important Shakespeare
studies of 1933-4.

vni

ELIZABETHAN DEAMA
By F. S. BOAS

MOST of the 1935 publications in the field of Elizabethan Drama
have been concerned with single playwrights or plays. But in
Themes and Conventions of Elizabethan Tragedy 1 M. C. Brad-
brook deals with some important wider aspects of the subject.
She seeks c to show that beneath what may seem Yery arbitrary
and trivial conventions there was an underlying unity which
makes into parts of a coherent whole much that has seemed
difficult to explain 3 . In this attempt 'the crucial question is
the nature of Elizabethan dramatic speech ', and the chapter
on it 'forms the keystone' of her argument.

In Part I of her book, 'The Theatre ', she begins by discussing
conventions of presentation and acting, including locality, time,
costume and stage effects, gesture and delivery, and grouping.
From these she proceeds to what she calls 'conventions of
acting', i.e. 'the plot in the Aristotelian sense, or narrative and
character taken together'. It may be questioned whether the
phrase is sufficiently explanatory, but Miss Bradbrook's analysis
is illuminating, as in her distinction between cumulative plots,
as in Tamburlaine, Arden, and Macbeth, and those involving
peripeteia, as in Revenge tragedies ; or in her classification of
the three Elizabethan 'positive standards of characterization
. . . the superhuman nature of heroes, the definition of characters
by decorum, and the theory of Humours'. Miss Bradbrook,
however, claims that the Elizabethans were less interested in
narrative and characterization than in direct moral instruction
and in the play of words or images. Their rhetorical school
education prepared them for the appreciation of rhetorical
dialogue on the stage, and Miss Bradbrook's illustrations of
different varieties of this 'patterned speech' are of much inter-
est. But the most vital part of her argument is that 'the
recognition of direct speech as a legitimate convention is neces-

1 Themes and Conventions of Mizdbethan Tragedy, by M. C. Bradbrook.
C.U.P. pp. viii+275. 12*. &Z.

200 ELIZABETHAN DRAMA

sary to the rehabilitation of Elizabethan methods of construc-
tion*. For her elaboration of this thesis and her illustration of
the e expository ' and * moral 5 uses of the soliloquy students must
be referred to the book itself. In Part II, 'The Dramatists \
Miss Bradbrook discusses how the conventions were handled
respectively by Marlowe, Tourneur, Webster, Middleton, and
the playwrights of 'the decadence \ i.e. Beaumont and Fletcher,
Ford, and Shirley. This assessment of Beaumont and Fletcher,
as compared with Tourneur, is one of the numerous debatable
points in a stimulating and attractively written volume.

In Those Nut-Cracking Elizabethans 2 W. J. Lawrence has
gathered together fourteen of his 'scattered writings' dealing
with the Elizabethan theatre and drama. The essay which
gives the book its title, together with that on 'The Elizabethan
Private Playhouse', were noticed, in The Tear's WorJc, xi 175,
when they first appeared, and a number of the other studies
have been discussed in other volumes of this annual survey.
But students will be glad to have together in revised form, and
with eight accompanying illustrations, essays on such subjects
as 'Bells in Elizabethan Drama', *The Evolution of the Tragic
Carpet', and "Bygone Stage Furniture and its Removers 5 , It
is in these alluring theatrical by-paths that Lawrence has been
so indefatigable and successful an explorer, not without a zest
for a 'scrap' with similar wayfarers. Though he speaks in his
preface of having entered upon his 'last lap', the note upon
The Site of the Whitefriars Theatre in R.E.S. (April) shows that
his activities are still 'in progress'.

Ethel Seaton's Literary Relations of England and Scandinavia
in the Seventeenth Century falls within the scope of Chapter ix, 3
but attention may here be drawn to Appendix I, 'References
to Plays 3 . The extracts from diaries and letters of Danish
students in England belong to the Restoration period, but they
note performances of Elizabethan plays, including Friar Bacon
and Friar Bungay, The Alchemist, A New Way to Pay Old Debts,

2 Those N^-GracMng Mizafoethans: Studies of the Early Theatre and
Drama, by W. J. Lawrence. The Argonaut Press, pp. viii+212.
10s. 6d. a See pp. 249-50.

ELIZABETHAN DRAMA 201

several of Beaumont and Fletcher's comedies, and the un-
identified The New-Made Nobleman.

T. C. Macaulay's article on French and English Drama in the
Seventeenth Century (Essays and Studies, vol. xx) is concerned
chiefly with the Restoration period and is noticed in Chapter x
(p. 268). But mention may be made here of the contrast which
Macaulay emphasizes between the Elizabethan public stage
with its protruding platform and restricted area and the
roomier French stage, which retained the multiple setting of
the period of the Mysteries.

A leading article on Pastoral Plays (T.L.S., Sept. 5) deals
with the development of out-of-door drama from Miracle Plays
to modern pageants and the open-air theatre in Regent's Park.
In the Elizabethan period, with regard to the pageants presented
during the royal progresses, it is pointed out that c the signifi-
cance of the site had now become an essential part of the scheme ' .
On the other hand, Shakespearian pastoral plays 'were not
intended to be framed in the nature with which they are instinct ',
and the Masques * despite their pastoral and sylvan repertory . . .
were essentially indoor shows dependent on scenic mechanisms ? .

B. R. Pearson makes a valuable survey of Dumb-Show in
Elizabethan Drama (RJE.S. 9 Oct.). He deals with fifty-seven
plays, from Gorboduc in 1562 to Massinger's Roman Actor in
1626, containing a total of over 120 dumb-shows. Four of the
plays fall within 1561-70; none within 1571-80; four within
1581-90; thirteen within 1591-1600; sixteen within 1601-10;
fourteen within 1611-20 ; and six within 1621-30. It is remark-
able, as Pearson points out, that so far as extant plays are
concerned, there is a gap of about twenty years between dumb-
show in Appius and Virginia (1567) and its reappearance in
The Spanish Tragedy and The Misfortunes of Arthur. Thence-
forward it continued to be popular for about forty years. From
his detailed analysis Pearson concludes that its general aim was
to provide the audience with incident and spectacle, but that
its particular purpose varied at different periods.

e lt may provide a symbolical comment on the theme of the play,

202 ELIZABETHAN DRAMA

it may provide a convenient means of representing dreams and
visions, it may fulfil the function of a prologue or scene of the

ordinary type, or it may be a means of placing characters in the

required position on the stage without the delay caused by spoken

acting.'

E. P. Vandiver, Jr., in the Elizabethan Dramatic Parasite
(S. in Ph., July) sketches the development of the type from
Merygreeke in Roister Doister to Sueno and Helga in Shirley's
The Politician. He stresses the point that 'the parasite of
Elizabethan drama is primarily a composite product ? . He traces
the various elements that went to his composition, from the
classical parasite, the Vice of the Moralities, the Italian parasite
of the commedia erudita and the commedia delVarte, and the
parasite of the Teutonic school drama, in which he 'was
regarded as a very opprobious character 3 . Vandiver would
have been well advised to keep his examples within these
limits instead of stretching his net to include such figures as
IMstaff, lago, and Sejanus, who cannot profitably be brought
within his designation.

In Logic in the Elizabethan Drama (S. in Ph., Oct.) Allan H.
Gilbert starts from the basis that 'logic in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries still occupied a prominent place in the
university study and in the estimation of scholars and men of
intellect' and that 'logical method and the vocabulary of logic
must have been familiar to all who had been at the university
and to many who had not *. It is, therefore, not surprising that
dramatists so often assumed that their audiences would appre-
ciate passages of dialogue involving the use of terms or methods
of formal logic. In the comedies of the period the scholar and
the logician are often identified and are usually unpractised in
the ways of the world. But from Lyly onwards logical forms and
dialectic are put into the mouths also of characters who have
had no academic training. Logical argumentation has its place
too in tragedy, as in the instances quoted by Grilbert from
ophonisba 3 The Revenge of Bussy d*Ambois, and *Tis Pity She 's
a Whore-, and, as he concludes, 'the drama rendered its tribute
to a great logician when Marlowe in The Massacre at Paris
presented the murder of Peter Ramus '.

ELIZABETHAN DRAMA 203

In Elizabethan and Seventeenth-Century Play Manuscripts
(P.M.L.A., Sept.) Alfred Harbage provides a valuable list of
the relevant manuscripts from 1558 to 1700, with the exception
of the numerous Latin plays of the period. He lists in succession
(1) plays by known authors from Francis Bacon to Richard
Zouch, (2) plays of which the authors are unknown, (3) anony-
mous plays without titles. In nearly every case the present
location of the manuscripts is given, with s autograph' or ' holo-
graph' appended when there is evidence of this.

Harbage justifiably states that he excludes comments on such
much discussed plays as Sir Thomas More, but even so one
scarcely expects to find it simply Hsted under * authors un-
known', without any cross-reference to Munday, Chettle, or
Shakespeare. As Latin plays are omitted, it would have been
well in the case of The Christmas Prince to specify which of the
pieces in it are English, in addition to Periander, of which the
author is now known (see below, p. 204). And in the final note
on 'unlocated manuscripts* it is not made clear that the Collier
fragment of The Massacre at Paris is now in the Folger library.
But these are minor points in a scholarly and helpful catalogue.

Giles E. Dawson's article on An Early List of Elizabethan
Plays (RJS.S., Mar.) is noticed below in Chapter xiv (p. 351).
But attention may be drawn here to a few points of wider
interest. Henry Oxinden's collection of plays (presumably here
catalogued) contained a copy of Roister Doister which he lent
on 18 October 1665, to c Sr Basil'. He does not give the date as
he does for many of the plays when it is on the title-page,
including seventeen of the nineteen plays in the section where
Hoister Doister is listed. This suggests that even if the title-page
of the unique copy in the Eton library had been preserved it
would be without the date. Oxinden lived near Canterbury and
showed a strong interest in Marlowe in his commonplace book
(see p. 207). It is curious that though he had copies of Dido and
Edward II (1598 edition) distinguished by a marginal pointing
hand, he does not mention Tamburlaine or Dr. Faustw either
in its earlier or later forms. But fortunately he gives the date of
his copy of Hamlet as 1603.

Dawson comments on the mystery of the seeming disappear-

204 ELIZABETHAN DRAMA

ance of the plays in Oxinden's collection, only one of which,
SelimuSy with "Hen: Oxinden 3 written on the title-page, has

found its way to the Folger Library.

Another mysterious disappearance of Elizabethan works is
recorded by W. G. Hiscock in The Christ Church Missing Books
(T.L.S., June 20). As no plays are included a detailed notice of
this remarkable article would not be in place here, but no
student of Elizabethan drama can be uninterested in the diverse
fortunes of the ten pamphlets of Greene, the three of Nashe, and
the copy of Gosson's The Schoole of Abuse., which were abstracted
from the Christ Church library, Oxford, between 1833 and 1848.

On the other hand the present writer was able to give news
in T.L.S., July 4, of A Lost and Found Volume of Manuscript
Plays. This was the volume of seven manuscript plays from
the library of W. G. Lambarde sold by Messrs. Hodgson on 19
June 1924 and which for a time could not be traced. It is now
in the Folger Shakespeare Library in Washington. It includes
among its more important contents, Hengist, King of Kent, a
variant version of Middleton's The Mayor of Quinborough,
Arthur Wilson's The Inconstant Lady, and an anonymous comedy
without a title. Bernard M. Wagner in T.L.S., July 11, identi-
fies this comedy as a first or early version, apparently autograph,
of Sir William Lower's Enchanted Lovers. In the same letter
Wagner draws attention to manuscript copies in the Folger
Library of S. Brooke's Mdanthe ; the anonymous academic play
Cancer; the St. John's, Oxford, Periander, with the hitherto
unknown name of the author, John Salisbury ; John Wilson's
JBdphegor, a prompt copy; and Charles Johnson's Force of
Friendship, with KilMgrew's conditional licence and the promp-
ter's annotations.

In The Authorship of e The Christmas Prince 3 (M.L.N., Dec.)
Alfred Harbage deals more folly with the manuscript of Peri-
ander in the Folger Library. It has on its title-page the entry
'made bye Mr John Sansburye*, a Master of Arts of St. John's
College and Vicar of St. Giles, who was assessed at ten shillings
for the maintenance of the Prince and his household. Harbage

ELIZABETHAN DRAMA 205

compares the Folger MS. of Periander with that at St. John's,
and notes that the former ' contains only a rudimentary drama-
tis personae, and no induction 3 and omits about 60 lines. On
the other hand it has three lines omitted apparently by acci-
dent from the Oxford MS. Other minor differences are also
noted.

Harbage suggests that as Salisbury was author of Ilium in
Italiam, which contains reproductions and explanations in Latin
hexameters of the arms of the various colleges, that it was he
who projected 'The triumph of all the flounders of the Colledges
in Oxford 3 , which there was not time to carry out (11. 9292-5) ;
and that he wrote Somnium fundatoris, acted on 10 January
1608, but not included in the St. John's MS. because, owing to
the author's death, it 'not long after was lost 3 . But Sansbury
did not die till January 1610, and as Periander was preserved,
why not this interlude ?

Harbage further points out that bound up with Periander are
the following dramatic manuscripts : Eisus Anglicanus (Latin) ;
A Christmas Messe, 1619; Heteroclitanonalonomia (English),
1613 ; Gigantomachia, or WorJce for Jupiter (English) ; and Jon-
son's Christmas his Showe, 1615.

In Fatum Vortigerni (T.L.S., Aug. 15) William K. McCabe
makes known the authorship of another academic play (MS.
Lansdowne 723), and shows that it is of Douai origin. In the
Douai Diaries, under 22 August 1619, there is the entry of the
performance c a nostris publice magno cum applausu* of Fatum
Vortigerni by Thomas Carleton, professor of Rhetoric. McCabe
adds that 'the whole treatment of the Vortigern-Roxina situa-
tion is a transparent Catholic commentary on that of Henry VHI
and Anne Boleyn ' . Carleton is farther recorded as the author of
a Latin play on Henry VIH himself (10 Oct. 1623), and of
another on Emma, Queen of England, and mother of Hardi-
canute (8 Sept. 1620).

A publication of 1934, Gfodes Peace and the Queenes, by
Norreys J. O'Conor, 4 was not noticed last year, as it is pri-

4 Gfodes Peace and the Queenes: Vicissitudes of a House, 1539-1615,
by Norreys Jephson O'Conor. O.TJ.P. 1934. pp. vi+154.

206 ELIZABETHAN DRAMA

marily a history of the Norreys family in Tudor times. But it
includes in Part vi an otherwise unknown account of an
interlude composed by Talboys Dymoke, who also acted in it.
It was performed on Sunday, 31 August 1601, at South Kyme
in Lincolnshire and was called 'the death of the lord of Kyme
because the same daye should make an ende of the Sommer
Lord game in South Kyme for that yeare '. In the play Dymoke
counterfeited his uncle, the Earl of Lincoln, who was 'fetcht
awaie by ... the Dyvill *. There was also a Vice who bequeathed
his wooden dagger to the Earl. A Latin dirge was sung, and
after the interlude one John Cradock uttered from a pulpit
a profane prayer and c reade a text out of the book of Mabb '.

The Earl of Lincoln took proceedings in the Star Chamber
against the offenders, and though they disputed most of the
charges against them they were sentenced in 1610 to severe
penalties, though Talboys Dymoke had died previously.

In the publications on individual dramatists Marlowe figures
less conspicuously in 1935 than during recent years. But in
Marlowe in Kentish Tradition (N. and $., July 13, 20, 27,
Aug. 24) Mark Eccles gives important support to manuscript
memoranda concerning him which have been called in question.
These memoranda, partly in cipher, are in a copy of Hero and
Leander (1629) included in the sale of Richard Heber's library
in 1834. They were transcribed at the time of the sale by
J. W. Burgon, who passed on his version to Joseph Hunter.
The salient points are as follow :

Feb. 10, 1640. M r Alscrit sales that Marloe was an Atheist,
and wrote a book against the Scriptures, how that it was all one
mans making; and would have printed it, but it could not be
suffered to be printed. He was a rare scholar, and made excellent
verses in Latin. He died aged about 30.

Marloe was stabbed with a dagger, and died swearing. Marloe
had a friend named PMneaux at Dover, whom he made an
Atheist, but who was made to recant. . . . This Phineaux had all
Marloe by heart.

There is also on the reverse of the title a Latin Epitaph on
Sir Boger Manwood by Marlowe.

J, P. Collier gave a similar, though less foil, account of the
memoranda in the catalogue of the Heber library and first

ELIZABETHAN DRAMA 207

printed the epitaph on Manwood in the introduction to his
edition of Shakespeare ( 1 844) . They have therefore been queried
by some critics and editors, including Tucker Brooke, as Collier
forgeries, though the existence of the volume containing them
has been verified as late as 1917, when it passed through the
hands of P. J. Dobell.

Eccles is now able to show that the memoranda and epitaph
were on record two centuries before the Heber sale. Henry
Oxinden, the collector of plays (see p. 203), on the fly-leaf of
his commonplace book and, with slight variations, on f. 42,
wrote the epitaph on Manwood, twelve Latin hexameters 'made
by Christopher Mario'. He quoted in this book, now in the
Folger Library, lines from Hero and Leander and Edward II,
and reported there remarks made by 'Mr. Aldrich 3 about Mar-
lowe, which are substantially equivalent to the memoranda in
the Heber copy of Hero and Leand&r. They are also found,
with some variations in another of Oxinden's commonplace
books (B.M. Add. MS. 28012).

Mr. Aldrich (incorrectly deciphered by Burgon as 'Akcrit')
was Simon Aldrich, member of a Canterbury family. Eccles
points out that he had gone up to Cambridge, Trinity College,
about the time of Marlowe's death, for he took his B.A. in
1596/7. He was a scholar and afterwards fellow of Trinity, and
before becoming a tenant and neighbour of Oxinden, he had
been vicar of Ringmer, Sussex. Mr. Phineux, or Fineux, of
Dover seems to have been Thomas Fineux, who matriculated
at Marlowe's college, Corpus Christi, in 1587, the year in which
the poet took his M.A. Thus through Oxinden a well-authenti-
cated tradition leads back to Marlowe's own time and surround-
ings in Kent and Cambridge.

F. B. Williams, Jun., in Ingram Frizer (T.L.S., Aug. 15) adds
something to our knowledge of the man who slew the dramatist.
He points out that Frizer seems to have been related by birth
or marriage to the Chamberlains of Kingsclere, Hants, among
whom the uncommon Qhri&tian name Ingram is found. Andrew
Chamberlain, citizen and draper of London, left by his will
(proved 10 June 1602) four pounds and also forty shillings for
black cloth to Ingram Frizer. Andrew's brother-in-law, Sir

208 ELIZABETHAN DEAMA

James Deane, also a citizen and draper, was even more generous
to Frizer. By Ms will (proved 13 June 1608) lie left him twenty
pounds and 'so much black cloth as will make him a cloake',
and forgave him a debt of five pounds. He was apparently the
James Deane to whom Frizer had sold the Angel Inn in Basing-
stoke in 1589.

In The "Senseless Lure." Problem (T.L.S., July 18) J. G. Flynn
defends the reading in Tamburlaine, Part I, Act m. iii. 158, as
found in the first, second, and fourth editions :

And make our strokes to wound the sencelesse lure

He holds that 'the expression is used in a metaphysical fashion
referring to the enemy as a senseless lure enticing Tamburlaine
to Ms capture 5 , and that ' sencelesse' has the double meaning of
'incapable of sensation \ and of c devoid of intelligence'.

In Peele's 'Decmsus Astraeae* and Marlowe* s 'Edward II'
(M.L.N., Dec.) Arthur M. Sampley points out that line 39 in
Decensus Astraeae, e ln peace triumphant, fortunate in wars',
occurs also in Edward II, L 1416. As Peele's poem was written
for 29 October 1591 the question whether he or Marlowe was
the borrower has a bearing on the date of the play.

In Proverbs and Proverbial Allusions in Marlowe (M.L.N.,
June) M. P. Tilley and James K. Ray state that Mtherto six
proverbs have been identified in The Jew of Malta and one in
Edward II. They proceed to add three in Dido, one in I Tarn-
burlaine, four in II Tamburlaine, four in Doctor Faustus, eleven
in The Jew of Malta, eight in Edward II, and four in Hero and
Leand&r. 6 Marlowe's employment of proverbs is confined mainly
to those "old truths" in wMch his characters find support for
their views or comfort for their woes. 5 The significance of
* proverb* needs some stretching to cover all their examples,
but the article with its numerous parallels from contemporary
works is of value to students of Marlowe.

In Greene's 'Ridstall Man 9 (MJ,.R* } July) Herbert G. Wright
supports W. L. Eenwick's conjecture (M.L.E., Oct. 1934) that
when Bohun, in Greene's James the Fourth, is described as
'attyred like a ridstaE man 5 , Bedesdale is meant. In William

ELIZABETHAN DRAMA 209

Bullen's Dialogue . . . against the Feuer Pestilence a beggar who
tells that he was born in Redesdale in Northumberland is
taken by a southern woman to be e a Scot by thy tonge', and
uses northern dialect forms.

In Kyd's Borrowing from Gamier' s ' Bradamante* (M.L.N.,
March) Marion Grabb points out that the lines in Soliman and
Perseda, I. iii. 79-81, 112-13 ; TV. ii. 7 < sooth to say, the earth Is
my country, &c. ' are strikingly parallel to a passage in Gamier's
play, Bradamante (1582), 11. 580-3, 587-9, and appear to have
been taken from it.

In A Brace of Villains (ibid.) Miss Grubb similarly points
out resemblances between the thief described by Bradshaw in
Arden of Fever sham, n. i. 49 ff., and Malengin in The Faerie
Queene, v. ix. 10 ff. She infers that the author of Arden (1592),
whether Kyd or another, had seen the Spenserian lines, pub-
lished in 1596, in manuscript before 1592. This seems highly
speculative.

In Ghosts and Guides: Kyd's 'Spanish Tragedy* and the Medie-
val Tragedy (M.P., Aug.) Howard Baker maintains that the
Ghost of Andrea and his companion, Revenge, who form the
Chorus to Kyd's play, are not derived directly from Seneca
but from "stock characters in the medieval metrical "trage-
dies " '. He compares the parts played by Sorrow in Sackville's
* Induction' to The Mirror for Magistrates and by the Ghost,
greedy for revenge, in 'The Complaint of Buckingham'. He
claims that * whatever the connections with the classics may
be, ghosts, revenge, and allegoric figures the features of Kyd's
drama were thoroughly embedded in English literature well
before Kyd's day'.

A scholarly and folly documented study of Ben Jonson's
reputation and theatrical fortunes for more than a century
after the Restoration is provided by Robert G. Noyes in Ben
Jonson on the English Stage, 1660-1776. 5 After a preliminary
chapter on 'Main Currents in the Criticism of Ben Jonson'

5 Ben Jonson on the English Stage, by Bobert Gale Noyes. Harvard
Univ. Press and O.U.P. (Harvard Studies in English, XVII.) pp. x-f
351. 15s.

2762.16 O

210 ELIZABETHS DRAMA

during the period under review, Noyes deals in separate chap-
ters with the theatrical history of six of the plays, beginning
with Volpone which to modern poets and dramatists . . . has
seemed the consummate achievement of Jonson's genius'. He
notes the revivals of the play not only to 1776 but to 1785, at
Drury Lane, and, after an interval of 136 years, the production
by the Phoenix Society in 1921, foEowed by performances in
Cambridge, New York (Stefan Zweig's version), and Malvem.

The stage-history of The Alchemist is even more remarkable.
It was acted oftener than any other of Jonson's plays, and
by a freak of theatrical fortune Abel Drugger came to be
regarded as the 'star 3 part. From the first appearance of
Garrick as the tobacconist on 21 March 1743 "the history of
The Alchemist became virtually the history of Abel Drugger'.
In the next twenty years Garrick played the role sixty-four
times. His stage-version of The Alchemist omitted over 900
lines and, as Noyes states, ruined the role of Sir Epicure
Mammon. But it was not a mere travesty of the original as was
Francis Gentleman's farce, The Tobacconist, in which Weston
appeared as Drugger at the Haymarket in October 1770, and
had no less a successor than Edmund Kean in 1815.

Upicoene was apparently the first play to be performed,
about 6 June 1660, after the return of Charles II on 25 May,
and its history is traced till its production at Drury Lane in
Colman's version in January 1776. Bartholomew Fair had fre-
quent revivals till 1722, after which it disappeared almost
completely from the play-bills. Every Man in his Humour, on
the other hand, had no great vogue in the Restoration period,
but had a remarkably prolonged success after its revival by
Garrick, in his own version, on 29 November 1751. The last
recorded performance of Catiline was on 8 March 1675, but in
1691 Langbaine states that the play was still in vogue on the
stage. A chronological list of performances of Jonson's plays,
1660-1776, completes a volume for which students of Ben will
be grateful.

A useful pendant to Noyes's book is G. J. Ten Hoor's article,
Ben Jonson's Reception in Germany (P.Q., Oct.). Ten Hoor
notes that the English comedians who introduced into Germany

ELIZABETHAN DRAMA 21!

late in the sixteenth and in the seventeenth centuries the plays
of early English dramatists and of Shakespeare did not bring
with them a single comedy by Jonson. The first of his plays to
be seen there was Sejatms, acted in a German translation at
Heidelberg, some time between 1663 and 1671, by members of
the court of the Prince Elector. It was not till about a century
later that Lessing, in 1758, and more fully in March 1768 (in
his Hamburgische Dramaturgic) initiated the German public
into Jonsonian humours. In 1771 Gerstenberg published a
translation of some scenes from Epicoene, In 1800 Tieck, whose
study of Jonson began in 1792, published a translation of the
whole play. He had already adapted Volpone, and by 1817 he
"had worked through Jonson's complete writings three times,
carefully, diligently, and thoroughly'. The attitude of Goethe,
Baudissin, and A. W. Schlegel to Jonson is discussed, and Ten
Hoor sums up by stating that except for Lessing, 'the value
of studying Jonson lay, for the Germans solely, in the light
which he might cast upon the work and genius of Shakespeare'.

The relation of Jonson and Shakespeare in the eyes of
another eminent German critic is the leading theme in Harvey
W. Hewett-Thayer's scholarly article on Tieck and the Eliza-
bethan Drama: his Marginalia (J.E.G.P., July). Ludwig Tieck
had copies of the 1692 Folio of Jonson and Gifford's nine-
volume edition, 1816; also of Collier's History of English
Dramatic Poetry and Hazlitt's Lectures on the Dramatic Poetry
of the Age of Elizabeth. These are now in the British Museum
with notes in his own handwriting which have been examined
by Hewett-Thayer. These notes show a remarkable knowledge
of Elizabethan drama, but those in the Folio and the Gifford
edition of Jonson display an animus against Ben, mainly due
to Tieck's resolve c to defend Shakespeare's pre-eminence in all
respects and at all costs' against 'the suggestion that any other
dramatist approaches or even resembles the great master 3 . To
Ms general tone of depredation the chief exception is his
estimate of Bartholomew Fair, e mir . . . ohne Frage das Liebste
von B. J. s Similarly in his notes in the Collier and Hazlitt
volumes he is always on the watch to dissent from any judge-
ment concerning other dramatists, e.g. Marlowe, Fletcher, or

212 ELIZABETHAN DRAMA

Webster, which seems to Mm to impair in any way the supre-
macy of Shakespeare.

How different is the atmosphere in Em. Ang.-Amer. (Oct.),
where Moris Delattre writes an appreciative notice of Andre
Bnzle as a preface to the latter's posthumous article, Sur Ben
Jonson. Brule died on 2 October 1934, and among Ms papers
this seemed the most suitable for publication in the Revue of
wMch he had been editor. It was suggested by a performance
at * 1' Atelier ' in Paris of a French translation by Jules Remains
of Stefan Zweig's German version of Volpone. Brule felt that
in various important points this misrepresented Jonson's play.
He gives a sketch of Ben, classique, moraliste, satiriste aussi, et
satiriste amer, parce qu'il etait observateur 5 , and of his other
cMef comedies. But Volpone is, in his eyes, Jonson's master-
piece, and he bewails the loss in the adaptation of its 4 grandeur ',
its c caractere balzacien', its 'poesie'. To illustrate the rhythm
of its verse he translates into French two speeches in Act III
by Mosca and by Celia.

In Two Notes on Ben Jonson (T.L.S., Feb. 14) George Burke
Johnston calls attention to two manuscript entries in a late
seventeenth- or early eighteenth-century hand in a copy of
volume i of the 1640 Folio of Jonson's works in Ms possession.
The first note is 'an extempore Epilogue spoken by Ben Jonson
upon one of Ms plays [Catiline] being ill received'. It consists
of four lines, with a similar double rhyme, and seems to be
not otherwise known. The second note is an Epitaph 'made by
Fletcher for him, over a glass of wine in Ms company '. The four-
lined epitaph is a variant of one reported by Drummond and
Archdeacon Plume. The latter ascribes Ms version to Shake-
speare. The above manuscript note is the only evidence for
Fletcher's authorsMp,

In a letter on Dicing Fly and 'The Akhemist* (T.L.S., June
27), Hope Emily Allen draws attention to two contemporary
passages, noted by L. S. Powell (see T.L.S., Aug. 1), wMch
throw light on Jonson's use of c fly ' in The Alchemist to denote
c a familiar demon that can be bought and sold 5 . Robert

ELIZABETHAN DRAMA 213

Parsons in 1601 describes how Adam Squire, afterwards Master
of Balliol, was known for 'certayne deeeyts used to some
countreymen of his in selling them dyeing flies'. A more de-
tailed account of the episode with a similar use of c fly 5 is found
in a letter written by a brother of Parsons, probably in 1612.

In Title-Page Mottoes in the PoetomacMa (8. in Ph., April)
Robert Boies Sharpe examines the Latin quotations in the
title-pages of the plays concerned in the c War of the Theatres \
from the 1600 quarto of Every Man out of his Humour to the
1602 quartos of The Poetaster and Satiromastix. He sheds light
on the implications of these mottoes by setting them in their
original contexts. And he carries on beyond the Poetomachia
period the examination of similar mottoes from Latin authors
on later title-pages of Jonson and Dekker.

In The Undated Quarto of I Honest Whore (Library, Sept.)
Hazelton Spencer reports that a second copy (imperfect) of
the undated quarto of Dekker's play, whose whereabouts was
unknown to W. W. Greg (see Library, June 1934), is in the Folger
Library. Spencer's chronology of the earliest editions runs:
Q 1, 1604; Q 2 (n.d.) 1604-5 (corrected) ; Q 3, 1605 (hybrid).

In a letter to T.L.S., Feb. 7, on Bullen's Beaumont and Fletcher
D. M. McKeitham reports that copies of the first two volumes
of the incompleted Variorum edition, recently acquired by the
library of the University of Texas, apparently belonged to
P. A. Daniel, who edited The Maid's Tragedy, Philaster, and
The Beggar's Bush. Inserted in volume i were copies of corre-
spondence relating to the uncompleted edition between Bullen,
Daniel, and the publishers, George Bell and Sons. There was
also a letter from K. Deighton to Daniel, containing some notes on
The Maid's Tragedy and Philaster. There are also thirteen notes
written in pencil or ink by Daniel on these two plays in volume i.

In an article On Six Plays in "Beaumont and Fktchw, 1679'
(M.E.S., July) R. Warwick Bond collects gleanings on sources,
date, and authorship from his unpublished editions of six plays
prepared for the above named uncompleted Variorum edition
of the two dramatists. He traces the historical source of The

214 ELIZABETHAN DRAMA

Double Marriage to Thomas Danett's translation (1596) of the
Memoires of Philip de Comines, Book vii, chaps. 11-14. He
divides the play between Fletcher and Massinger. In The Maid
in the Mitt by Fletcher and W. Rowley he finds c frank imitation'
of Borneo and Jvliet and The Winter's Tale. The chief source of
the main action of Love's Cure Bond found in La Fu&rza de la
Costumbre, a comedy by Guillen de Castro, of which he gives a
precis. A subsidiary source is the Spanish romance Gerardo,
translated by L. Digges. On grounds which he sets forth Bond
assigns the play to Massinger and Mddleton. In The Night-
Walker, licensed by Herbert as 'Fletcher's corrected by Shirley',
Bond finds little to distinguish Shirley precisely. The Woman's
Prize, or The Tamer Tamed, on metrical evidences, he would
date 1618-22, and he finds resemblances in it to Lysistrata. For
The Noble Gentleman Bond finds suggestions in Hamlet and Don
Quixote, translated by Shelton 1612. He would date it 1613-16,
written by Beaumont and Metcher, and revised in 1626, perhaps
by Mddleton.

Two of the plays discussed by Bond are also dealt with by
Baldwin Maxwell. In The Date of Fletcher's ' The Night-Walker 9
(M.L.N., Dec.) he notes the mention in Act m. iii. of 'Tom-a-
Lincoln', the great bell of Lincoln Cathedral, which was first
rung on 27 January 1610-11. On the ground that this allusion
would be most apt soon after this date, Maxwell is inclined to
place the play in 1611.

In The Woman's Prize, or The Tamer Tamed (Mod. Phil., May)
Maxwell uses a similar allusion to 'Tom o' Lincoln ', Act m. ii,
together with a reference to c the North-East passage ', Act n. i,
as the chief arguments for a date early in 1611 rather than
1604 on account of references to the rebellion of Tyrone and
the siege of Ostend. Owing to the English setting of The Woman's
Prize, and the description of Petruchio's married life with a far
from fully tamed first wife, Maxwell holds that 'The woman's
prize was originally not a studied continuation or an answer to
The taming of the shrew*, and that either Fletcher knew the
older play slightly or added later the passages which glance
back at it.

In John Fleer's Autograph (P.Q., Oct.) W. W. Greg makes

ELIZABETHAN DRAMA 215

some additional observations on the question whether Fletcher's
letter to the Countess of Huntingdon is holograph (see The
Tear's Work, xv. 201).

P. V. Kreider's monograph on character conventions in Chap-
man's comedies 6 begins with a somewhat exaggerated protest
against Hhe customary adverse criticism of his plays 3 and ends
with some general notes on his life and writings. But it is in
substance a detailed discussion of his technique as exemplified
in his handling of a number of traditional comedy devices and
types. Thus a dozen variations are noted of the ways in which
Chapman's dramatis personae directly characterize themselves
to the audience or are interpreted before or after their appear-
ance by other speakers. The management of disguised charac-
ters is shown to take different forms in The Blind Beggar of
Alexandria, May-Day, and The Widow's Tears. Conventional
comic characters are divided by Kreider somewhat arbitrarily
into two groups, domestic figures and figures from the street.
Among the domestic figures is the Pantalone, the old man in
love. Kreider examines some of Chapman's variations of the
type, including Labervele in An Humorous Day's Mirth, who
for the most part is the ridiculous puppet of Italian comedy,
but in his relations with his son is 'an appealing, pitiable,
somewhat realistic figure'. But the Pantalone more usually
has a daughter who circumvents him in making her own choice
of a husband ; her most attractive impersonation is Margaret
in The Gentleman Usher. Among the so-called "figures from the
street ' are the braggart soldier, the pedant, and the gull, and
Chapman's modifications of these are illustrated respectively
from Quintiliano in May-Day, Sarpego in The Gentleman Usher,
and D'Olive in Monsieur D'Olive. Kreider's conclusion is that
'his late personages show a modification, a humanizing, a
release from such strict confines of tradition as hampered his
earlier creations'.

But probably to a number of readers the most novel part of
the treatise will be the chapter which illustrates the relation of

6 Elizabethan Comic Character Conventions as revealed in the Comedies
of George Chapman, by Paul Y. Kreider. Ann Arbor : Univ, of Michigan
Press, pp. xi+206. $2.50.

216 ELIZABETHAN DRAMA

Chapman's characterization to the psychology and physiology
of his day. Here the quotations from Burton's Anatomy, Bright J s
A Treatise of Melancholy, and Coeff eteau's A Table of Humane
Passions, help us to a more precise understanding of passages
in the plays which might be taken as merely metaphorical.
Appendixes and a bibliography complete this favourable ex-
ample of a characteristically Transatlantic doctoral thesis.

The Parrott Presentation Volume 1 includes Ethics in the Jaco-
bean Drama: the Case of Chapman, by Hardin Craig (pp. 25-
46) ; Political Theory in the Plays of George Chapman, by Charles
W. Kennedy (pp. 73-86) ; and Sir Giles Mompesson and Sir
Giles Overreach (pp. 276-87).

Rudolf Kirk's edition of The City-Madam^ which continues
the series of Princeton and Bryn Mawr studies of Massinger's
plays, was not available for notice last year. His text of the
comedy is based upon the copy of the quarto, dedicated to
'Mr. Lee., Esquire', in the University of Chicago library, which
has been collated with several other copies showing variations,
and with later editions from Dodsley (1744) to Symons (1887).
Kirk's emendations of what is on the whole a good text have
been sparing, though for metrical reasons the lineation has been
altered in a number of cases, including six which are new.

In his introduction he is inclined to date the play, which was
licensed on 25 May 1632, on account of the character of the
sartorial references, not later than from 1624 to 1626. He
regards it as certain that the quarto was printed from an acting
copy, but as yet unproven that this was in Massinger's hand.
From a comparison between the initial C T* and the headpiece
over the first page in The City-Madam with a similar *T* in
Amadis de Gaule, printed by Jane Bell in 1652, and the head-
piece in her edition of King Lear (1655), Kirk shows conclusively
that Jane Bell was the printer of the quarto. The identity of
the actor, Andrew Penny cuicke, and of the various patrons to
whom he dedicated different copies of the quarto is discussed.
But the larger part of Kirk's introduction consists of an account

7 See pp. 184-5.

la The City-Madam: a Comedy by Philip Massing&r 9 ed. by Rudolf
Kirk. Princeton Univ. Press and O.U.P. 1934, pp,vii+183. $2.00, 90.

ELIZABETHAN DRAMA 217

of later editions and translations of The City-Madam and, in
somewhat disproportionate detail, of the adaptations of the
play. These include the anonymous eighteenth-century manu-
script version, The Cure of Pride, now in the Huntington
library ; Riches: or, The Wife and Brothers by Sir James Burges
(1810), in which both Macready and Edmund Kean appeared
as Luke ; and an adaptation, with the original title, at Sadler's
Wells in 1844-5, in which Samuel Phelps played Luke. Kirk's
scholarly edition of The City-Madam also includes Notes, in
which special attention is given to sartorial, local, and astrono-
mical references, and a Bibliography.

In The Printer's Copy for the 'City-Madam' (M.L.N., March)
A. K. Mcllwraith brings some new evidence to support his
statement in R.E.S. viL 206 that Massinger's play was printed
from a manuscript which was most likely in his autograph. He
quotes some characteristic spellings and two printers' errors
which might well have arisen from his tricks of writing.

In A Further Patron of The City Madam ' (Bodleian Quarterly
Record, viii, no. 85) Mcllwraith notes that in a 1658 copy of the
play recently acquired by the Bodleian the patron is Richard
Steadwel, Esquire.

In Middleton's Acquaintance with the ( Merrie Conceited Jests
of George Pede" (P.M.L.A., Sept.) Mildred Gayler Christian
claims the Merrie Conceited Jests (1607) as a source of The
Puritan (1607), Your Five Gallants (n.d.), and A Mad World,
My Masters. She assigns the three plays to Middleton and
inclines to the view that they were composed within a few
months of one another. She describes a number of parallel
situations in the Jest-book and the plays, especially the two
first named, and finds here additional support for Middleton's
authorship of The Puritan.

The Contemporary Significance of Middleton's ( Game at Chesse >
is discussed by John Robert Moore in the same number of
P.M.L.A. He claims to identify in the picture on the title-page
of Quartos 1 and 2 not only the Kings of England and Spain,
Gondomar, and the Bishop of Spalato, but the two Queens,

218 ELIZABETHAN DRAMA

Archbishop, Abbot, Olivarez, Buckingham, and Prince Charles.
Mddleton, according to Moore, could not have written the
introductory poem, which shows ignorance of the rudiments of
chess. This game instead of cards was chosen by the dramatist
for allegorical use because the best chess-players of the time
were Spaniards or Italian subjects of the Spanish King, like
Greco, who lived in England from 1622 to 1624. After going
into details of the allegory Moore suggests that it was probably
Buckingham who influenced Herbert to license the play, to
prevent Gondomar's return to England and to fan the popular
feeling against Spain.

Bernard Wagner in C A Middlefon Forgery' (P.Q., July) shows
that a manuscript note in a copy of A Game at CJiesse in the
South Kensington Museum is not a forgery as S. Tannenbaum
has argued. The rhymed 'petition' in the note appears also
in two manuscript poetical miscellanies of the second quarter
of the seventeenth century, Bawl. poet. 152, fol. 3, and Douce,
f. 5, fol. 22 1?.

The Malone Society Reprints of the two parts of // you Know
not Me, you Know Nobody, 8 belonging formally to 1934, are
dated 1935. They have been prepared by Madeleine Doran in
consultation with the General Editor, The eight editions of
Part I between 1605 and 1639 are anonymous, but the eighth
edition included a prologue and epilogue which had appeared
in Thomas Heywood's Dialogues and Dramas (1637). 'Their
inclusion in the edition of 1639 is prima facie evidence that it
is to the present play that they belong, and in that case there
can be no doubt that Thomas Heywood was at least part-
author of // you Know not Me, you Know Nobody.' Its identity
with 'the Play of Queene Elizabeth 5 in the heading to the
Prologue in the Dialogues and Dramas is accepted by the
Malone editors, but they give reasons for doubting whether
Heywood was referring to the form in which it has come to us.

In the Prologue Heywood claimed that he had corrected for
revival at the Cockpit a corrupt text printed without Ms consent.

8 If you Know not Me, you Know Nobody, Part I. pp. xxvii+six
coILotypes+A*-G*. Part IE. pp. li+five collotypes +A 2 -K+ Appen-
dix. Ed. by Madeleine Doran and W. W. Greg (Malone Society Reprints).

ELIZABETHAN DRAMA 219

The Malone editors point out that Q 8 does not justify such
a claim, for the revision, ' though extensive, is superficial and
perfunctory'. Whether Heywood or another was the reviser,
the 1639 version 'is itself derivative and can provide no stan-
dard of comparison to assist in determining the nature of origin
of the bad text printed in 1605 '. Heywood declared concerning
this text-book :

some by Stenography drew
The plot: put it in print (scarce one word trew).

The interpretation to be put on these words and the recent
theory that the play was at least partly reconstructed from
memory by some of the actors (see The Year's Work, xiv. 214)
are discussed, and also the relation of the play to Sir Thomas
Wyatt.

The relation of the four editions of Part II (1606, 1609, 1623,
and 1633) is considered. Q 1 presents a tolerably good text,
and the changes and emendations in Q 2 and Q 3 do not provide
evidence of recourse to any other authority. Q 4 contains a
number of arbitrary alteration of readings, though one group
of changes is due to an attempt to remove vulgarity and
profanity. It also includes a different and longer version of
the Armada scenes. The various possible solutions of the com-
plex problem presented by the two versions are set forth;
parallel texts of those portions of the Armada scenes that are
comparable follow the Introduction, and the text of the 1633
version of these scenes is appended to the reprint. Finally, the
Malone editors, as a tentative suggestion', give an outline of
what may have been the history of the whole play. They have,
in any case, provided the fullest materials for any later theories.

The controversy on the authorship of The Revenger's Tragedy
has been resumed in 1935. In Tourneur and Mr. T. S. Eliot
(S. in Ph., Oct.) E. H, 0. Oliphant defended his ascription of
the play to Middleton against Eliot who has maintained the
* orthodox ' view that it is from the pen of Tourneur . Oliphant
also insisted on the priority in date, on stylistic grounds, of
The Ath&ist's Tragedy.

Una EIlis-Fermor in The Imagery of * The E&oeng&rs Tragedie 9
and TJte Atheists Tragedy 9 (M.L.R. f July) has approached the

220 ELIZABETHAN DRAMA

problem from a fresh angle, ' in the light thrown by a comparison
of their imagery ', and both the questions of authorship and date
she decides against Oliphant. For the detailed consideration of
the imagery and its treatment in the two tragedies readers
must be referred to Miss Ellis-Fermor's article, in which she
sums up thus:

'In view then of the great likeness in certain distinctive habits
of mind that occur in both plays ; the unusual precision of the
drier imagery; the power of sustaining this precision through
unusuaEy long and articulated series ; the delight in intellectual
agility side by side with the gift of deep and penetrating poetic
imagery ; in view of a preponderance in both plays of images
drawn from certain well-defined and yet unconnected fields of
experience business and finance, building, timber, and work-
manship I am convinced that the same man was the author of
both and that if, in the case of A .T., Ms name was Cyril Toumeur,
that was undoubtedly also the name of the author of S.T.*

But because of certain differences which c all point to a clearer
habit of thought in A.T. than in RJT.\ Miss Ellis-Fermor is
convinced that the latter is the earlier, with an interval of
some years.

Under the title of The Greatest of Elizabethan Melodramas
Lacy Lockert discusses The Revenger's Tragedy in The Parrott
Presentation Volume* (pp. 103-26).

Another much debated problem is again raised by Elmer
Edgar Stoll in The Date of 'The Malcontent': A Rejoinder
(RJJ.S., Jan.). In opposition to Sir Edmund Chambers and
H. R. Whalley, who assign The Malcontent to 1604, the year
when it was first printed, Stoll adheres to the view that he first
set forth in 1905 that the play was written in 1600, and here
re-states the evidence as he sees it. The question is not merely
one of the chronology of Marston's plays, but of the possible
influence of The Malcontent on Hamlet or vice versa.

In an article on The Anonymous Masque in MS. Egerton 1994
(R.E.S., April) J. D. Jump recalls how Bullen pointed out that
a long passage in the masque, on f. 215 r was apparently derived
from Chapman's Byron's Tragedy^ n. i. 20-51. Jump calls

9 See above, pp. 184-5.

ELIZABETHAN DRAMA 221

attention to a large number of other minor similarities of
imagery and phrasing between the masque and Chapman's
plays and poems. But its general style is unlike his and Jump
finds, perhaps too confidently, internal evidences of a date not
earlier than 1641. As Chapman died in 1634 he concludes that
the piece 'is either the revision by an unknown hand of a masque
by Chapman, or a work substantially original, containing impor-
tant borrowings from the earlier poet'. He prefers the former
alternative.

Another play in MS. Egerton 1994 is discussed by Fred
Benjamin Millett in The Date and Literary Relations of ' Wood-
stock', part of a doctoral dissertation, privately circulated by
the University of Chicago libraries. Millett gives a full account
of the editorial and critical work devoted to this play from the
purchase of the manuscript volume in 1865 by the British
Museum till the issue of the Malone Society reprint (1929)
under the title of The First Part of the Reign of King Richard,
the Second or Thomas of Woodstock (see The Year's Work, x.
201-2). He discusses in detail the question of its date and
takes the side of those, including Miss Frijlinck, the Malone
Society editor, who would assign it to the last decade of the
sixteenth century as against those, of whom the present writer
is one, who prefer a Jacobean date. The relation of Woodstock
to the Chronicle-play type is considered, but to estimate ade-
quately Millett's views and methods it would be necessary to
see the complete dissertation in the Chicago University libraries,

A special aspect of the same play is discussed by John James
Elson in The Non-Shakespearian 'Richard IF and Shakespeare's
"Henry IV, Part P (S. in PL, April). Elsom directs his atten-
tion to the Chief Justice Tresilian, a 'voracious, conscienceless,
pusillanimous figure 5 . He finds in his character, behaviour, and
dramatic effect a striking resemblance to Sir John Falstaff,
and from parallels in situation and wording infers that Shake-
speare knew the anonymous play and was indebted for hints
to it. This, of course, implies an acceptance of a sixteenth-
century date for it.

In The Plays of Edward Sharpham: Alterations Accomplished
and Projected (R.E.S., Jan.) Clifford Leech gives illustrations

222 ELIZABETHAN DRAMA

of c the Elizabethan practice of hastily adapting a play to the
particular needs of the moment'. In Cupid's Whirligig (1607)
one of the characters is a poor and pretentious 'Welch Courtier 3
Nucome. But as he is asked to bestow 'one poore thistle 3 of
Ms bounty, as he talks of c siller 5 , and as his mistress *lookes
like an Northerne Lasse 5 , it seems as if Sharpham had intended
Nucome to be Scotch, and had made Mm Welsh in fear of the
censor.

The copy of The Fleire (1607) in the British Museum contains
numerous cuts and changes in speech-headings and stage-
directions. These result in a considerable reduction in the time
of performance and in the number of actors required. The
adapter seems to have had a private and provincial performance
in view, though Leech doubts if the cut version was actually
used.

In Robert Davenports Lustspiel, 'A New Trick to Cheat the
Devil 3 (Anglia s Hx. 3-4) Edward Eckhardt gives an account of
a number of stories in verse and prose in different languages
wMch are more or less parallel to the underplot in Davenport's
comedy.

In A Lost Elizabethan Play about Palamedes (N. and Q. 9
Aug. 31) M. EL Dodds quotes an epigram by William Percy in
a manuscript collection (1616) referring to 'Ulysses in a Playe 3 ,
where 'good comfits' were spread instead of 'barren salt'. The
allusion is to Ulysses feigning madness to escape military service,
ploughing the sand and sowing salt. Palamedes exposed the
trick by placing Telemachus in front of the plough. No extant
play on the subject is known. See also Edward Bensly's further
note (Sept. 14).

M. Joan Sargeaunt in John For& Q has contributed the most
detailed critical study in 1935 of an Elizabethan dramatist.
She begins with a sketch of Ford's early life and writings, 1586
to 1620, in wMch she embodies some of her work previously
noticed (see The Tear's Work, xiil 184 3 and xv. 243-4) on Ford's
connexion with the Middle Temple and his authorship of the
poem Christen Ehodie Sweat and the pamphlet The Golden

10 John Ford, by M. Joan Sargeaunt. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
pp.232. 12*. 6<i

ELIZABETHAN DRAMA 223

Meane. She then discusses the canon and chronology of Ford's
plays from 1621, from which year till 1625 he seems to have
collaborated with Dekker and others, and thereafter to have
worked alone till probably 1638. Miss Sargeaunt discusses
Ford's share in The Witch of Edmonton, The Spanish Gipsy,
where she differs from Dugdale Sykes in not assigning to Mm
the gipsy scenes, and The Sun's Darling which she takes to be
probably a recasting of an older play or masque by Dekker.
She agrees with F. L. Lucas in ascribing to Ford Act rv. i, of
The Fair Maid of the Inn.

The first of two chapters on ' Ford as an independent drama-
tist ' deals mainly with the relative importance of character and
plot in his plays. Miss Sargeaunt finds in even the worst of his
plays a deep insight into the human mind, 'but if the Aristote-
lian canon that plot is the most important element of drama is
accepted without compromise, much of his work must be re-
garded as a failure. In only two of Ford's plays is the conduct
of the plot entirely satisfactory: The Broken Heart and Perkin
Warbeck.' The main plot of 'Tie Pity She's a Whore is handled
with great skill, but the introduction of three underplots over-
loads the play. Generally it is in his treatment of material
unrelated to his main plots, either melodrama or low comedy,
that Miss Sargeaunt sees Ford's weakest side. On the other
hand, 'in his presentation of individual characters given with
a steadiness, consistency and lack of comment 3 he reaches a
high pitch of dramatic art. Miss Sargeaunt illustrates this more
particularly from his presentation of his women characters,
many of whom have a strong family likeness, yet each has a
marked individuality.

The discussion of Ford's sources includes an interesting con-
sideration of his debt to Shakespeare, which Miss Sargeaunt
thinks has been sometimes exaggerated. In the chapter on * the
setting of the plays' she lays stress on the point that Ford's
choice of an Italian background for four of his plays and of a
pseudo-Grecian for two others was deliberate and significant.
But it is in the discussion of his dramatic verse that Miss
Sargeaunt makes her highest claims for Ford. 'The extra-
ordinary reserve and simplicity of his dialogue at its best are
hardly to be found in any other dramatic writing of the age

224 ELIZABETHAN DRAMA

outside some of the scenes of Shakespeare's plays. 5 Her scholarly
and sympathetic study will certainly do a service to Ford's

reputation which, as her final chapter shows, has gone through
such varied phases.

The following American publications, which have not been
available for fuller notice, have appeared in 1935:

The Real War of the Theatres: Shakespeare's Fellows in Rivalry

with the Admiral's Men, 1594-1603. Repertories, Devices,

and Types, by Robert Boies Sharpe. Boston: Heath.
A History of Elizabethan Revengeful Tragedy, by Fredson

Thayer Bowers. (Harvard Univ. Ph.D. thesis, summary.)
Alexander Brome: His Life and Works, by John Lee Brooks.

(Harvard Univ. Ph.D. thesis, summary.)
The Famous Victories of Henry the Fifth. A Critical Edition

by William Smith Wells. (Stanford Univ. Abstract of

dissertation.)
Also the following continental publications :

Das Schauspiel der englischen Komodianten in Deutschland,

by Anna Baesecke. (Halle: Niemeyer.)
Das englische Renaissancedrama im Spiegel zeitgenossischer

Staatstheorien, by F. Grosse. (Breslau dissertation.)

IX

THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD : POETRY

AND PROSE
(1) The Later Tudor Period

By A. K. MclLWBAiTH

THE outstanding figures of the age form an impressive pageant
in an agreeable little volume of broadcast talks on Queen Eliza-
beth and her Subjects, by A. L. Rowse and G. B. Harrison. 1
Besides the Queen herself, Burghley, Sidney, Essex, Marlowe,
Ralegh, and Cardinal Allen, receive individual treatment, and
there are supplementary chapters on 'Some Women of the
Queen's Court', "Three Elizabethan Actors', and in conclusion
6 The Elizabethan Age ' in general. Neither the space available
nor the medium for which the essays were composed admit of
anything in the nature of condensed biography, but by means
of interpretation or of anecdote the authors present a series of
vivid impressions of the leading personages of the time.

A much more detailed acquaintance with the Queen's charac-
ter and the problems of her government can be gleaned from
the hundred and eighty letters which G. B. Harrison has selected
from e between two and three thousand * and has printed as The
Letters of Queen Elizabeth?' The task of selection must have been
more difficult for this volume than for others of the same series
which present rulers of later times, for Harrison points out that
there are four classes of correspondence which are all in some
sense 'her letters ' : those written (1) by the Queen herself, (2) on
her foil instructions and subject to her supervision and correc-
tion, (3) with her signature and general approval, and (4) for-
mally in her name, but actually by officials without reference to
her. The distinction between state documents and the personal
letters of the sovereign becomes more clearly marked as the
power of the throne yields to the growth of Parliament and

1 Que&n Elizabeth and her Subjects, by A. L. Bowse and G. B. Harrison.
Allen and Unwin. pp. 139. 5s.

a The Letters oj Queen Elizabeth, ed. by G. B. Harrison. Cassell.
pp. xvi-f 324. 10s. d.

2762.16 p

226 THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD

bureaucracy. The general principle of this selection is * to show
Queen Elizabeth as woman and ruler' by choosing the most sig-
nificant personal letters and those official letters "which showed
her statecraft in the various crises and problems of her reign'.
The chosen letters, which are presented in a modernized text
when the originals are in English and in a modem translation
when they are in foreign languages, are disposed in five chapters,
and are set ia a running commentary comprising brief prefatory
notes to each letter and more extensive introductions to each
successive historical period. The subject-matter is personal and
political, rarely if ever literary, and there is no facile solution
to be found here of the enigmas of Elizabeth's character or
policy, yet the selection is well calculated to awaken the interest
of the general reader, and students will be grateful for expert
guidance in a handy and compact form.

One of the problems which continually urged itself upon the
attention of Elizabeth and her court was that of Ireland, and
E. M. Hinton's Ireland through Tudor Eye^ will prove a useful
guide to the study of contemporary opinion. His period stretches
roughly from 1568 to 1616, and his practice is to quote, sum-
marize, and elucidate the views expressed by soldiers, adminis-
trators, geographers, and men of letters ; Ralegh, Essex, Spen-
ser, Bryskett, Campion, and many others appear in his pages,
and the whole forms a lucid and readable chronological descrip-
tion of English writing on Ireland during the period.

From the rich stores accumulated in the Huntington Library,
Louis B. Wright has drawn a substantial and fully documented
study of Middle-Glass CvMwe in EliwJb&han England. 4 " Wright
will not accept 'a conception of Elizabethan England as a land
of dashing courtiers like Raleigh strewing coats in the mud for
a queen to walk upon", based on the theatrical careers of the
leading courtiers and statesmen ; instead, he brings together a
mass of evidence to show 'what the draper, the baker, the

3 Ireland through Tudor Eyes, by Edward M. Hinton. Pennsylvania
and QJJ. Presses, pp. xii+111. 9s.

4 Middle-Glass Culture in Mizafoethan England, by Louis B. Wright.
North Carolina Press and O.TLP. pp. xiv-f 73. 22#. &L

POETEY AND PEOSE 227

butcher, and their apprentices were reading and thinking '. His
book is not the first witness to a renewed interest in the reali-
ties of Elizabethan life from day to day, but it is invaluable
for its great wealth of illustrative quotations, many of them from
books now excessively rare and unlikely ever to be reprinted in
their entirety, and Ms systematic classification, ordering, and
interpretation of his material combine with an excellent index
to make it an easy book to consult.

The quotations will probably constitute the book's cMef
attraction to many readers who may lack the vigour to follow
with unflagging energy the argument of its six hundred and
fifty large pages of text, and they appear in part to have dic-
tated its plan. It is for this reason, no doubt, that music and
the fine arts are accorded only occasional reference in the por-
trayal of a popular culture wherein music in particular played
a considerable part: our ancestors may have been almost as
interested in singing as in cooking, but they wrote fewer books
about it, so there is less for Wright to quote. Within the limits
imposed by the available material, the picture is full and fas-
cinating and remarkable in its diversity, and it fully bears out
the author's contention that * the great awakening of the Renais-
sance was not confined to the learned and the courtly elements
in society ', but was indeed particularly active in the citizen
class from which the structure of our modern world is sprung.

The variety of the reading matter provided for the Eliza-
bethan middle-class public is further illustrated by two, at
least, of this year's Shakespeare Association Facsimiles. One
of these is a two-coloured reproduction in the original red and
black inks of An Almanack and Prognostication for the Tear
1598* By this time the almanac had developed a conventional
form or rather three conventional forms and the one here
reproduced has been chosen as representative of a year of
Shakespeare's prime and because it is sufficiently well preserved
to permit of photographic reproduction. In an instructive
and entertaining introduction E. F. Bosanquet explains the

5 An Almanack and Prognostication for the Year 1598, ed. by Eiistace
F. Bosaaquet. Shakespeare Assoc, Facsimiles, no. 8. O.ILP. pp. xiv+
[47]. &?.

228 THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD

development of the almanac In its three forms, and shows the
distinction (which not all dramatists of the day seein to have
observed in their allusions) between the 'almanac 5 and the
' prognostication ', whereby the former stated astronomical fact
and the latter meteorological and general and political specula-
tions, based in part on common sense and in part on a
scrupulous resolve to give the public the thrills it wanted.

Another volume in the series contains facsimiles of two prose
pamphlets and a broadside ballad on the BaMle of Nieuport,
1600* with an introductory essay by D. C. Collins on Eliza-
bethan journalism. Collins, too, notes the sense of news value
shown by the publishers of news pamphlets before the first
beginnings of the periodical newspaper in this country, and
finds that 'Taking the date of entry in the Stationers' Register
as an approximate date of printing, it appears that any event
of importance which was put forth in a news pamphlet was
printed within ten days of the actual happening '.

A more sophisticated public comes before us in the paper on
Books amd Bookmen in the Correspondence of Archbishop Parker
contributed by W. W. Greg to The Library (Dec.). This contains
much miscellaneous information about 'the control of book pro-
duction and circulation, Parker's dealings with individual prin-
ters, and his own collecting and editing of ancient manuscripts',
all of which necessarily contributes to our knowledge not only
of the Archbishop's personal character and interests, but of
literary concerns and the state of English studies in his day.

In matters of literary theory, a useful aid to clarity of thought
and balance of judgement concerning the 'borrowings' of the
Elizabethans is furnished by H. 0. White's agreeable and lucid
study ofPlagiarism and Imitation during the English Renaissance?
which follows a single thread of argument with admirable stead-
fastness from its classical origins to the reign of James I. c Eliza-

6 BaMe of Nieuport, 1600: Two News Pamphlets and a Ballad, ed. by
D, C. Collins. Shakespeare Assoc. Facsimiles, no. 9. O.U.P. pp. xxx-f
[18]+ 1 folding plate. 6s.

7 Plagiarism and Invitation during the English Renaissance: A Study
in Critical Distinctions, by Harold Ogden White. Harvard Univ. Press
and O.UJP. pp. xii+209. 10s. 6cL

POETRY AND PROSE 229

bethan literary theorists, like their continental teachers, con-
tinually employ the word "imitation", without distinction, for
following nature (mimesis) and for following other writers \ and
only in the latter sense is it White's subject ; moreover he is
primarily concerned with 'what English Renaissance writers
say about imitation ', and only in the second place and by way of
illustration with what they do in practice. The book is thus in
effect a survey of the answers given by English writers between
1500 and 1625 to the question: 'Should a writer imitate pre-
vious writers ? '

The opening chapter gives in brief the consensus of opinion
of classical antiquity, which condemned imitation when slavish
or furtive or of the wrong things, but praised it when the imita-
tor chose well and digested, transformed, and improved upon
Ms models when his imitation was, in White's favourite phrase,
a reinterpretation. The fortune of this orthodox opinion is then
traced through the writers of Renaissance Italy and France,
who are shown in general to have adopted it, despite the less
balanced insistence on pure copying, with no safeguard for
originality, of Bembo, Vida, and Scaliger.

Before Sidney, White finds little valuable discussion of the
question in England, since "the great majority of the authors of
the period either practised imitative composition without dis-
cussing their theories at all ... or merely paid incidental homage
to their models 5 , but in the ninth decade of the century an
examination of Sidney, King James, Webbe, The Arte of Eng-
lish Poesie, and Harington makes it possible to c formulate the
first approach to a canon of English Literary theory \ one in
substantial agreement with Classical and continental precedent.

The development of this canon is then traced through the
critical and controversial writings of the next generation, adroit
use being made of the objurgations which the combatants flung
or abstained from flinging at one another in such quarrels as
those of Nashe and Harvey, Marston, Dekker, and Jonson, and
Marston and Hall (in which last he notes that the word 'plagi-
ary 5 first appears). Churchyard stands out as the lonely and
disgruntled opponent of imitation in any form, but with the
growth in volume of English literature comes a 'steadily increas-
ing demand for liberty, for originality' which leads to the full

230 THE ELIZABETHAN PEBIOD

and assimilated reproduction of classical theory at its best
in the reign of James I, expressed in Bacon's Advancement of
Learning and Jonson's Discoveries.

The single-mindedness with which White pursues his strictly
limited theme through masses of confused, repetitive, and dis-
cursive writing gives his work a welcome clarity and unity,
which is enhanced by contrast with his single lapse from rele-
vance in an ' aside 5 on the authorship of Gascoigne's Posies.
This might, perhaps, have given place to some analysis and
illustration of the nature of that reinterpretation ' which critical
theory sought in a good imitator, for without some such contact
with particulars the general theory remains somewhat remote
in its unearthly clarity. No doubt the writer^ of the Renais-
sance are themselves responsible for creating this gap between
theory and practice, but White has tactfully supplied their
omissions elsewhere, and he would have earned added grati-
tude by doing so here.

The literary theories of the Elizabethans derive the greater
part of their interest from the practice of the Elizabethan poets,
and this is admirably illustrated in England's Helicon, which its
latest editor H. E. Rollins 8 calls the most beautiful of the
Elizabethan poetical miscellanies and most distinguished from
the point of view of authorship '. With it Rollins says he brings
to an end 'the series of editions of the more important Eliza-
bethan miscellanies that [he] began in 1924 with A Handful of
Pleasant Delights', but it may be hoped that this farewell to
miscellanies is to be read with emphasis on the qualifying phrases,
at any rate whilst his pledge to edit The Arbor of Amorous De-
vices (noted in The Teafs Wor1c y xiv. 231) remains unredeemed.

The first volume of the present edition reprints page for page
and without editorial interference the first edition of 1600, and
the nineteen poems which were added in the second edition of
1614. The second volume, besides giving full textual and ex-
planatory notes and discussions of the origins and authorship
of each poem, contains an introduction dealing with the an-

8 England** Helicon, 1600 y 1614, ed. by Hyder Edward Bollins.
Harvard Univ. Press and O.U.P. 2 vols., pp. xiv-j-228, viii+241.
12s. Qd. each volume.

POETRY ANJ) PROSE 231

thology as a whole and with its compiler. Eollins makes it
clear that England's Helicon, like PoliteupJiuia (1598), Wits
Theatre (1599), and Belvedere (1600), was dedicated to John
Bodenham and not edited by him, and thinks it likely that
whilst the unidentified ' A. B/ who signed the dedicatory son-
net was the titular editor the real work was done by the *L. N. J
who signed the address c To the Reader, if indifferent \ and whom
he follows BuHen in identifying as Nicholas Ling. It seems
paradoxical that the British Museum should have promptly
catalogued Rollins 's edition under the name of Bodenham.

Concerning Elizabethan poetry in general, Francis White
Weitzmann has contributed some Notes on the Elizabethan
'Elegie' to P.M.L.A. (June), expressing his dissatisfaction with
the lack of precision which he finds in the O.E.D.'s definition
of the word and enumerating eight types of English poem to
which it was applied, and the sonneteers have formed the sub-
ject of two useful notes in the Mev. de Litt. Oomp. In the
January-March number Janet G. Espiner (nee Scott) acknow-
ledges some of the supplements to her study of Les Sonnets
elisabethains made by Hugues Vaganay, and defines more clearly
her opinion on certain points, and in the April-June number
Vaganay himself, in a note on Quatre Noms propres dans la
litt&ature: D&ie, PhilotMe, OphMie, PasitMe, touches in con-
clusion on English poetry in connexion with the Fourth Muse
mentioned in one of the E. K/s glosses to The Shepheardes
Calender and in the anonymous sonnet sequence Zephetria of
1594.

A more extensive study of another of the older Elizabethan
poets is that which Pierre Janelle has published of Robert Sonth-
well; the Writer? According to Janelle "it is no more possible
to understand Southwell apart from Counter-Reformation
Catholicism, than Bunyan apart from Puritan Protestantism 3 ,
and he accordingly devotes the first half of his book to a sym-
pathetic exposition of the doctrine and a,JTYis of the Roman
church in general and of the Jesuits in particular, interweaving

* Robert Southwell: the Writer, by Pierre Janelle. Sheed and Ward,
pp. xiv+336. 16*.

232 THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD

with Ms account the history of Southwell's Jesuit education
abroad and Ms experiences as a missionary in England up to the
time of his death for Ms faith in 1595.

The remainder of the hook is devoted to a careful analysis of
Southwell's published or manuscript writings, prose and poetry
alike. Many of these cannot be dated with any exactness on
external evidence, but a few dates which are fixed enable Janelle
to trace a steady development in Southwell's art from c con-
cettism to directness' and from the "strongly Euphuistie* style
of a prose fragment of 1586 or earlier to the 'clear, direct, and
forcible controversial prose' of the Humble Supplication of 1591.
In poetry too Southwell, while often translating foreign verse
or imitating for pious ends the profane compositions of his
fellow countrymen, shows signs of the same transition from
artificial ingenuity to forthright directness.

It is true that modern critics do not generally place Southwell
in the front rank of writers, and it is perhaps not quite Janelle ? s
aim to urge them to do so ; his peculiar interest as a Roman
Catholic poet in Elizabethan England has been recognized before,
but Janelle has augmented this interest by Ms literary analysis
of the poet's technique and by the compassionate interest wMch
he awakens in the sufferings and hardsMps of his life.

One aspect of Southwell's art is examined further in an article
contributed by Oh. R. Mangam to the Sev. Ang.-Amer. (Aug.)
on Robert Southwell and the Council of Trent. Mangam shows
how the poet converted the erotic themes and pagan imagery of
contemporary poetry to religious ones without sacrificing the
fasMonable attractions of alliteration, assonance, and antithesis ;
he calls attention to two direct retorts to profane poems, one
of Thomas Watson and one (several times translated into Eng-
lish) of Petrarch, and suggests that the imperfect rhyming of
Southwell's earlier verses is due to Ms familiarity with quantita-
tive Latin verse, wMch made Mm overlook the effects of accent
on the feminine rhymes wMch he attempted in English.

A winner of the Hawthornden Prize would perhaps be more
at home in Chapter xiii, but Evelyn Waugh's life of Edmund
Campion ought to be mentioned however briefly in con-

10 Edmund Campwn, by Evelyn Waugh. Longmans, pp. x+225.
6*.

POETRY AND PROSE 233

nexion with Janelle's study of Southwell. The two men may
well have been acquainted at Douay, and they met the same
fate in the same cause, after moving in the same circles in
England.

It is an abrupt transition from these matters of faith and the
spirit to record a note by Allan Griffith Chester (P.M.L.A.,
Sept.) calling attention to Thomas Churchyard's Pension of 20d.
a day for life, granted him by the queen in 1597.

Next to Spenser, Sir Philip Sidney continues to attract more
attention than any non-dramatic Elizabethan poet. We find
Sidney's 'Astrophel and Stella ' Reconsidered by Theodore Howard
Banks in PM.L.A. (June). Banks disputes the view that Sid-
ney's sonnet sequence records an actual experience, and without
denying the bare possibility that some Platonic affection is there
reflected urges that Sidney was 'perhaps emulating Ms Italian
friends, perhaps honoring his country by his poetical efforts,
and almost certainly giving himself the pleasure of artistic self-
expression '. The substance of J. M. PurcelTs study of Sidney's
'Astrophel amd Stella' and Greville's 'Cazlica* (PMJLA., June)
is a solid table of parallels between sonnets in the two sequences,
in thought, imagery, and vocabulary. Resemblances between
the work of Sidney and that of his friend and admirer axe not
surprising, as Purcell observes, but he finds * that there are
sufficient parallels to imply consultation, but not enough to
sustain a charge of imitation or plagiarism against either writer '.
Hoyt H. Hudson writes in the Huntington Lib. Bull. (Apr.) of
Penelope Devereux as Sidney's Stella, bringing together many
more or less open allusions of early date to the identification.
He argues that Sidney's family were reluctant to hear his name
coupled with that of his early love after the disgrace of her
adultery and illegal second marriage, and suggests that the
elegies of Spenser and Bryskett deliberately hinted at a false

but innocuous identification of Stella with Frances WaMngham.

t

Sidney himself called his Defence of Poesie an c inck-wasting
toy' and his Arcadia *a trifle, and that triflinglie handled 5 , and
the latter work has also been described in these pages as c an
idle tale to beguile a summer's day' (The Year's Work, viiL

234 THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD

187). From Ms study of Sir Philip Sidney as a Literary Crafts-
man 11 K. 0. Myrick reaches the conclusions that the Defence is
an oration, fashioned according to the principles of Quintilian,
on behalf of the respondent Poetry in rebuttal of the plaintiff
Gosson ; and that the new Arcadia if not the old is an epic poem
following the precepts of Minturno.

Of the three views, that the Arcadia is a trifle, a moral alle-
gory, or a work of art, Myrick prefers the third, and he explains
at length the attitude of an Elizabethan gentleman to literary
composition, the c sprezzatura, the urbane nonchalance 5 com-
mended by Castiglione, which inspired those slighting references
to Sidney's own work which contrast so strongly with his general
view of literature set forth in the Defence. Myrick addresses Ms
book *to the reader who has more than a passing acquaintance
with the writings of Sir Philip Sidney", with the warning that
6 The scholar . . . will find few items of information that he can-
not easily find elsewhere'. What he has attempted is c a new
synthesis of facts wMch for the most part are already well
known \ And if some of Ms conclusions as well as his facts strike
the reader as familiar he should none the less be grateful for an
orderly and lucid exposition of them.

E. Vine Hall has printed in N. and Q. (Jan. 12) extracts from
the will of Lettice, Countess of Leicester, the tercentenary of
whose death was the occasion of a memorial notice last year
(see The Tear's Work, xv. 221) in wMch the will was not quoted.

There has been no sign of abatement in the flood of work
devoted to Spenser. A. C. Judson has pursued Ms biograpMcal
investigations in A Biographical Sketch of John Young, Bishop
of Rochester?-* to whom Spenser became secretary in 1578 and
in whose service, as many hold, he wrote most of the poems in
The Shepheards Calender. * A worthy, useful life he surely led,
without, however, it would seem, any considerable element of

11 Sir Philip Sidney as a Literary Craftsman, by Kenneth Orme
Myrick. Harvard Univ, Press and O.U.P. pp. x+322. 15s.

12 A Biographical Sketch of John Young, Bishop of Rochester, with
Emphasis on his Relations with Edmund Spenser, by Alexander Corbin
Judson, (Indiana Univ. Studies, no. 103.) Bloomington: University
Bookstore, pp. 41. 75 cents.

POETRY AND PEOSE 235

the noble or heroic ', and Ms doctrinal views, like those of his
secretary, are found to be equally distinct from Romanism and
from Puritanism. It is perhaps the suggestion that Spenser did
not share the distinguishing opinions of the Puritan movement
that gives Judson's study its greatest interest, for there is no
evidence that Young did much to mould the poet's philosophy*
Spenser's circle of friends is further examined in an article
on Lady Carey and Spenser by Ernest A. Strathmann in E.LJ3.
(April). His survey of the documentary evidence concerning
Lady Elizabeth Carey, second Baroness Hunsdon, and of the
references to her in contemporary literature, leaves Strathmann
sceptical of the theory that the dedication of Amaretii and the
sonnet accompanying The Faerie Queene indicate a relation of
courtly love between her and the poet, and he finds that
* Spenser's avowed addresses to Lady Carey are adequately
explained by kinship, the conventional practices of . literary
patronage, and the generous hospitality which won others to
praise the Careys'.

The fourth volume of the Variorum Spenser has made its
punctual and welcome appearance, containing The Faerie
Queene, Book Four, edited by Ray Heffner. 13 In this volume the
progressive shrinkage of exegetical matter, already noticeable
last year (see The Tear's Work, xv. 210-11) has continued, in
part because many general topics have already been dealt with
in appendixes or notes in the earlier volumes, and in part per-
haps because the second three books have on the whole aroused
less critical comment in the past than have the first three. The
principles of the edition are unaltered, and publisher, printer,
and editor fully maintain their high standards.

Heffner has also printed in M.L.N. (March) a note on The
Printing of John Hughes's Edition of Spenser, 1715, which forms
a supplement to the first two volumes of the Variorum and ex-
plains some apparent errors in the collations there printed; and
Jewel Wurtsbaugh (ibid.) has elucidated the relations of Thomas

13 The Works of Mdmund Spms&r: A Vwiorum Edition, ed. by Edwin
Greenlaw, Charles Grosvenor Osgood, Frederick Morgan Padelford. The
Faerie Queene, Book Four, ed. by Bay Hefther. Johns Hopkins Press
and O.U.P. pp. xiv-}-357. %7s each volume, not sold separately.

236 THE ELIZABETHA3ST PERIOU

Edwards and the Editorship of the 'Faerie Queene' in 1750 and
1751 from the correspondence of Edwards which is preserved
in the Bodleian Library.

A general survey of Platonic Ideas in Spenser has been under-
taken by Mohinimohan Bhattacher je, 14 who traces their develop-
ment from the early poems and the earlier books of The Faerie
Queene to the later books. He shows how the ostensibly Aristo-
telian framework of Spenser's thought is throughout iHuminated
by gleams of Platonic profundity, derived at first from Plato
himself and later from the Neo-Platonism of Plotinus as ex-
pounded by his Italian and French followers of the Renaissance.
An exposition on these lines necessarily covers some familiar
ground, and Bhattacherje has been able to profit by all but the
most recent research. It should be observed that his volume, al-
though dated 1935, actually appeared in the previous year, too
soon for him to cite the new-found translation of the Axiochus
as evidence of Spenser's direct knowledge of the Platonic canon.

The second book of The Faerie Queene is that in which Spen-
ser is generally held to have kept closest to his professed model
of the twelve moral virtues of Aristotle, and special interest
therefore attaches to Bhattacherje's quest for Platonism there.
His equation of Pyrochles, Cymochles, and Guyon to the three
Platonic elements of the Soul, Passion, Appetite, and Reason,
may seem to be rather strained, and to neglect the special com-
pound Mean which Aristotle devised for his virtue of Courage,
but there is force in Bhattacherje's argument that the internal
sufferings of Pyrochles belong rather to Plato's conception of
passions at discord within the Soul than to any Aristotelian
extreme. In Book I, also, his readiness to surrender the Red-
crosse Knight to Calvin as a Christian conception lends weight
to his claim for Una as an embodiment of Platonic Truth.

Several other writers have made general surveys of Spenser's
poetry from particular points of view. Rosemond Tuve has
contributed to J.E.G.P. (Jan.) a sympathetic study of Spenser
and the 'Zodiake of Life \ the translation of PaJingenius by Bar-

14 Platome Ideas m Spem&r, by Mohinimohan Bhattacherje. Cal-
cutta: Longmans, Green, pp. xii~|-20Q. Rs. 2.8.

POETRY AND PROSE 237

nabe Googe which was commended by Harvey. She sees in it
not a mechanical source for Spenser's words or images, but an
influence on his thought and ideas, and an element in the growth
of his astronomical philosophy. E. C. Knowlton, writing of
Spenser and Nature in J.E.G.P. (Oct.), has shown that the poet
was following classical and Renaissance precedent in treating
Nature as the divine power of Order in the world.

In his study of Spenser's Irish River Stories Eoland M. Smith
(PM .L.A., Dec.) claims for Spenser at once a greater familiarity
with Irish legend and a less irresponsible imagination than the
accepted view imputes to him. The ' stories 5 in question are
those in Colin Clouts Come Home Againe (92-155) and in the
Cantos of Mutabilitie (vi. 38-55).

Jewel Wurtsbaugh writes appreciatively in S.E.S. (April) of
Digby's Criticism of Spenser, and quotes some of his more pene-
trating and remarkable comments.

There has been further discussion of the nature of G-loriana's
Feast and the part it was to play in The Faerie Queene. Ivan L.
Schulze (M.L.N., March) discusses Elizabethan Chivalry and the
Faerie Queene's Annual Feast, and urges that since Elizabeth's
reign saw the continuance, revival, or institution of many such
chivalric festivals this should be regarded not as a bit of
mechanical framework, but as a significant element in the
chivalric purpose of the poem ; and in a comparative study of
The Elizabethan Entertainment and ' The Faerie Queene * Howard
W. Hintz (P.Q., Jan.) argues that Spenser's poem reveals strik-
ing resemblances in its plan and in its outstanding episodes to
the entertainments prepared for Queen Elizabeth's royal pro-
gresses, of which he takes as typical that at Kenilworth in 1575
as described by Robert Laneham.

The Observations on the Epic Similes in 'The Faerie Queene 9
which Zaidee E. Green has contributed to P.Q. (July) are con-
cerned with the purpose of the similes, not with their sources;
it is interesting that they should occur more frequently in the
second half of the poem than in the first, since a change in
their function is also suggested.

Several particular points in The Fa&rie Queene have been the
subjects of critical investigation. H. Edward Cain (Shakespeare

238 THE ELIZABETHAN PEEIOD

Assoc. Butt., July) would associate Spenser's 'Shield of Faith 9
borne by the Bedcrosse Knight with the legend SCVTVM
FEDEI PEOTEGET EVM engraved on the half-sovereigns of
Edward VI, a legend revived by Queen Elizabeth at the begin-
ning of her reign ; and in a note on Una and Duessa Roland M.
Smith (P.M.L.A., Sept.) argues that both names and not onlj
the former are of Irish origin. Duessa is recorded as a Middle-
Irish woman's name in some such form as Dubheasa, and Spen-
ser might have been struck by the apt connotations of the noun
doibheas = 'vice, bad manners 7 .

Spenser's Palmer is the title given by Merritt Y. Hughes to a
paper on the externalizing of Conscience in Elizabethan poetry
and drama which has appeared in E.L.H. (Sept.). Since each
person in The Faerie Queene plays a dual part, as an actor in
the story and as the 'externalized' symbol of a mental quality,
Hughes's treatment of the Palmer (in his second function) as a
projection of part of the mind of Guyon (in his first) is less con-
vincing than that of the Old Man who dissuades Faustus from
suicide in Marlowe's tragedy, but the suggestion that Spenser
in his narrative distinctly conceived of the Palmer as an em-
bodied rational spirit is interesting. Charles W.Lemmi (M.L.N.,
March) adds a few to the instances he has already indicated of
Symbolism in e Faerie Queme\ n. 12.

The theory of friendship expounded in the fourth book of
The Faerie Queene has been examined in two studies by Charles
G. Smith. Writing in 8. in Ph. (April) on Spenser's Theory of
Friendship: an Elizabethan Commonplace he seeks to show that
Spenser is here portraying the .opposite effects of the forces of
concord and of discord, and that this concept is common in
Elizabethan poetry and pageantry. In a farther article on Sen-
tentious Theory in Spenser's Legend of Friendship contributed to
E.L.H. (Sept.) he takes as a starting-point his previous con-
clusion (see The Year's Work, xv. 217) that Spenser saw friend-
ship as * the operation in the world of man of a harmonizing and
unifying principle of cosmic love', and sets out to prove that
Spenser's view rests upon seven propositions, and that these
propositions were commonly accepted at the time. He is more
successful in showing that his seven propositions were in fact

POETEY AND PROSE 239

widely accepted, and were derived not only from Greek philo-
sophy but from a revival of proverbial wisdom in Renaissance
England, than in establishing the necessity of their connexion
with the Theory of Friendship.

Kerby Neill (E.L.H., Sept.) opens his account of The 'Faerie
Queene 3 and the Mary Stuart Controversy with a substantial and
lucid account of the various phases of this controversy, with a
view to seeing how far this analysis will support the different
identifications which have been made of Mary with the various
women in Spenser's poem. Of these he considers only three to
be worth considering, those with Duessa, Acrasia, and Radi-
gund. In conclusion he shows that Books IV and V are a ' con-
tinued allegory 5 with Duessa representing Mary Stuart through-
out, and promises to return in later articles to treat of Acrasia
and of Radigund.

Two Notes on the Philosophy of ' Mutabilitie* printed by Brents
Stirling in M.L.N. (March) supplement his earlier papers (see
The Tear's Work, xv. 217, xiv. 227) by showing that these final
cantos are indebted to Golding's version of Ovid, and that their
philosophy must on any interpretation remain Boethian. J. M.
Pur cell in P.M.L.A. (Sept.) uses the evidence of the relative
frequency at different stages of the poet's development of words
denoting colour and light and shade to determine The Date of
Spenser's ' Mutabilitie* Cantos, and finds that these show a
greater affinity with the first part of The Faerie Queene than
with the second. Since similar analyses by other scholars have
pointed the opposite way, he concludes that 'the counting of
words in a partial analysis of vocabulary is not satisfactory evi-
dence' of the chronological order of the composition of a poet's
works.

In P.M.L.A. (March) Agnes Duncan Kuersteiner argues
against Herford and the generality of Spenserians that E.K. is
Spenser, making a good point that the glosses are not so inac-
curate as has been claimed, but dealing less cogently with the
argument that E. K.'s praise of Spenser makes their identity
improbable. His study of The Composition of the 'Shepheardes
Calender 9 leads Roland Bassett Botting (P.M.L.A., June), who
does not accept the identification of E. K. and Spenser, to

240 THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD

observe many inconsistencies between different poems in the
collection, although no one poem is internally inconsistent.
From this he infers that the volume was composed in part at
least of earlier work hastily brought together. Leicester Bradner
describes The Latin Translations of Spenser's ( Shepheardes Calen-
der ' in Mod. PML (Aug.). Of these there were two, one made by
John Dove about 1584 and never published, the other made by
Theodore Bathurst 'not long after 1608 s , and first published
in 1653, two years after the translator's death.

Henry G. Lotspeich (E.L.B., Nov.) writes of Spenser's < Vir-
gils Gnat 3 and its Latin Originals, showing grounds for preferring
the edition published at Antwerp in 1542 by A. Dumaeus to
the Plantin text used by Renwick.

The title of Spenser* s 'Fowre Hymnes": Addenda is given by
Josephine Waters Bennett to a substantial article in S. in Ph.
(April) in which she supports against the criticism of 3?. M.
Padelford her original contention that the Fowre Hymnes are
the considered expression of a single coherent course of thought.
She argues that this is derived from the Christian Neo-Platon~
ists of the Renaissance, and questions the existence of a real
opposition such as Padelford implies between Christian doctrine
and ancient Neo-Platonism.

H. 6, Lotspeich (M.L.N., March) challenges the view that
Spenser's Urania in The Teares of the Muses shows the poet
momentarily forgetful of her precise function, and shows that
the concern with theology and philosophy there ascribed to her
was already associated with her by Spenser's admired model Du
Bartas.

Astery's Transformation in 'Muiopotmos' is traced by Charles
W. Lemmi (PMJLJL., Sept.) to a source in Lactantius's com-
mentary on the Thebais of Statins.

In M.L.N. (March) Kathrine Roller prints some Identifica-
tions in 'Colin Clouts Come Home Againe' made in a hand of the
early seventeenth century in the margins of a copy belonging
to Mr. Gabriel Wells. They appear to be without authority,
but agree in the main with modern findings ; and the anony-
mous commentator also quotes a couplet from the 1605 edition
of Sylvester's translation of Du Bartas with the note that c This
was made by Josuah Silvester of Edmund Spenser ' . That Spen-

POETRY AND PROSE 241

ser's Aetion in the same poem may be Marlowe, an identification
previously suggested by W. L. Renwick, is made independently
by Arthur Gray (T.L.S., Jan. 24) and warmly supported by
Renwick himself (ibid., Jan. 31). It is, however, disputed by
Kathleen Tillotson (ibid., Feb. 7), who prefers Drayton.

The question of Spenser or Anthony Munday? A Note on the
' Axiochus* is debated by Bernard Freyd and Frederick M.
Padelford in P.M.L.A. (Sept.). Freyd shows the weakness of
the external evidence for Spenser's authorship of the transla-
tion, and argues on external and internal grounds for Munday.
Padelford replies with a fuller statement of the case for Spenser
than was made in his edition of the work last year (see The
Year's Work, xv. 212).

6 N ewes out of Munster 3 , A Document in Spenser's Hand,
printed by Raymond Jenkins in S. in Ph. (April), is a brief
report written in March 1581-2, which he believes to be in the
poet's handwriting.

Turning to poets who may conveniently be classed as 'later'
than Spenser, we find the 'Fortunio 3 and 'Raymundus 3 of
Joseph Hall's Virgidemiae, Book IV (1598) conjecturally identi-
fied by Sidney H. Atkins (T.L.S., Oct. 3) with Captain Laurence
Keymis or Kemys, who sailed to Guiana for gold in 1596, and
Sir Walter Ralegh, whilst A. Davenport (R.E.S., Jan.) writes on
John Weever's 'Epigrammes* and the Hall-Marston Quarrel,
pointing out Weever's direct allusions to Hall's Virgidemiae,
identifying Hall as Weever's Crassus, and suggesting that he is
attacked elsewhere under the pseudonym of Corvus.

The 'T.A.' who wrote The Massacre of Money (1602) has been
identified with Thomas Achelly, but F. B. Williams, Jnr.
(T.L.S., Feb. 21) advances reasons for considering Thomas
Andrewe more likely, since the former is last heard of in 1582
and the latter was still writing in 1604.

In a further study of Leicesters Ghost, which he had already
identified as the work of Thomas Rogers of Bryanstone and had
shown to date from about 1604 (see The Year's Work, xv. 219),
Franklin B. Williams, Jnr. (Harvard Studies in Philology and
Literature, vol. xviii) discusses the questions of its source, models,
and date, and describes the contents of the poem both in its

2762.16 n

242 THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD

longer manuscript form and in the shorter published version
(which he believes to have been prepared by the author him-
self).

Hugues Vaganay contributes to Rev. de Lilt. Comp. (Jan.-
March) a note on UCEuvre d'un eveque frangais traduite par
Josuah Sylvester, in which he calls attention to the French
originals of several of the translations to be found in the 1633
edition of Sylvester's translation of Du Bartas, in particular
among the poems of Pierre or Philibert du Val, bishop of Seez
in 1545, which appeared in English under the title of Little
Bartas.

On the borderline of this section and the next, part of the
field of English Emblem Literature which was covered last year
by Mario Praz (see The Year's Work, xv. 230) is minutely
examined in the Basle dissertation of Irma Tramer, 15 who dis-
cusses in detail the work and sources in this vein of Andrew
Willet and George Wither, and reproduces some interesting
pages in facsimile. A. Joly has published a comprehensive
study of the work of William Drummond deHawthornden l wldch
arrived too late for full consideration. It appears to be critical
and judicious as far as it goes, but to be hampered by its failure
to take account of any work published since 1928, so that the
work on the sonnet cycles of Janet G. Scott and of Lu Emily
Pearson (with the latter of whom the author is often in un-
conscious agreement) was not available.

It is perhaps natural that in the Elizabethan period prose
writers should receive less attention than poets, but their share
has not been small. Light is thrown by C. R, Baskervill (T.L.S.,
Aug. 15) on the career of Richard Mukaster before 1561, when
lie became headmaster of the Merchant Taylors' School, and
the entire or partial authorship is ascribed to him of a pageant
written to celebrate Elizabeth's coronation. John Frampton's
Account of the Tobacco-Plant, the first to appear in English,

15 Studun zu den Anfangen der puritanischen fimblemliteratur in Eng-
land, by Irma Tramer. Berlin, pp. iv-f 91.

ie William Drummond de H<mthornden, 1585-1649: Apergu $ ensemble
sur la meet FGUuvre du Poete, by A. Joly. Lille : a 1'Economat des Facxil-
tes Gatholiques. pp. xii+ 165.

POETEY AND PROSE 243

occurs in his Joy full newes out of the newefounde worlde of 1577.
Since the description of the tobacco plant is not found in the
Spanish work by Nicolas Monardes of which Frampton's book
is a translation, it has been regarded as original, but Ralph E.
Ockenden (N. and Q., Feb. 2) shows that it is translated from
L* Agriculture et Maison Rustique of Charles Estienne and Jean
Liebault, of which a second edition appeared in 1570. In a
brief but useful note in T.L.S. (Apr. 25) on The Eauen of Hope
(1585) F. B. Williams, Jnr., points out that this work which is
ascribed in the S.T.C. and elsewhere to C R.A. 3 has a dedication
signed by Raphe AUin.

Hyder E. Rollins (Harvard Stoics and Notes in Philology and
Literature, vol. xviii) gives in his Notes on the Sources of Mel-
bancke's Philotimus a long series of parallel quotations from the
novel of 1583 and the many and varied works from which Mel-
bancke appropriated his material. The evidence which Rollins
presents shows that he does not exaggerate when he says that
Philotimus c is literally a cento, whole paragraphs, at times whole
pages, being lifted from other Elizabethan writers without the
change of a significant word*.

Harold Jenkins's paper On the Authenticity of ( Greene's Groats-
worth of Wit' and The Repentance of Robert Greene' in E.E.8.
(Jan.) is a reasoned and cogent defence of these two pamphlets,
whose authorship and veracity were impugned by C. E. Sanders
(see The Tear's Work, xiv. 235-6). Jenkins points out that
Greene need not have written them in 'the last few days before
his death', since his fatal illness lasted for "about a moneths
space ', and accepts the Groatsworth as written when the author's
condition was dangerous but not desperate and the Repentance
as a later work when all hope had left him, with obvious post-
humous editorial additions.

Don Cameron Allen writes in 8. in Ph. (April) of 'The Anato-
mie of Absurditie 9 : A Study in Literary Apprenticeship, tracing
many of Nashe's classical instances to the Officina of Ravisius
Textor (1522).

Several words in Gabriel Harvey's Vocabulary which are not
adequately defined in the O.E.D. are listed and discussed by
J. M. Pur cell in T.L.S., May 23, and some farther Printed Books

244 THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD

with Gohrid Harvey's Autograph or MS. Notes are recorded by
G. C. Moore Smith in M.L.E. (April).

In a note on Chapman and Mario in T.L.S. (June 20) H. L. R.
Edwards argues that it is Florio rather than Shakespeare or
any other whom Chapman is attacking in a passage in The
Shadow of te Night.

An analysis of Thomas Deloney's Euphuistic Learning and
'The Forest' by Hyder E. Rollins (P.M.L.A., Sept.) shows that
many of the novelist's examples of pseudo-natural history whose
ultimate source was classical were more immediately derived
from The Forest of Thomas Forteseue, published in 1576.

The recent labours of N. B. Paradise, G. J. Sisson, and Alice
Walker have made it possible for Edward Andrews Tenney to
keep his biography of Thomas Lodge 11 free from unwieldy masses
of documentation, and to compose a smooth and readable narra-
tive. His account, in the first two chapters, of Lodge's complex
family might have been easier to digest if it had been illustrated
by a tabular pedigree, and it leaves the impression of being fuller
than is really necessary for the understanding of Lodge's family
pride and family quarrels, but thenceforth the account moves
steadily forward. The writings of A. Clark, W. P. Baildon,
H. E. D. Blakiston, and others assist Tenney to paint pictures
of the life of an undergraduate at Oxford and of a student in
Lincoln's Inn into which the known facts of Lodge's early career
are neatly fitted, and to the Lincoln's Inn period belongs the
quarrel with Stephen Gosson over the morality of stage plays
which first brought Lodge before the general public as a man of
letters.

For his literary career, from the publication of An Alarum
against Usurers in 1584 to that of Prosopopeia in 1596, the chief
evidence is of two sorts, more or less explicit literary references
in his own and other men's works, and legal documents generally
concerning his disputes with his numerous creditors or with his
elder brother William, though the episode of the ' disastrous
voyage towards the South Sea with Sir Thomas Cavendish 5 in
the years 1591 to 1593 has a special set of sources to itself. The

17 Thomas Lodge, by Edward Andrews Tenney. Cornell Univ. Press
andO.U.P. pp. xiv+202. 9s.

POETRY AND PROSE 245

novels, pamphlets, plays, and poems are described, quoted, and
appraised in their proper places, but literary criticism and 're-
search' are subordinated to biography in the structure of the
work. Tenney suspects Lodge of being drawn to the Roman
Catholic church at a very early stage in his career, and indeed
suggests that this was why he did not take his M.A. in 1581 and
why the Privy Council required his appearance before it in June
of that year. This is attractive, as is the identification (which
Paradise rejects) of Lodge as 'The Prodigal! Young Master'
described in Nashe's Pierce Penilesse ; but it is in his treatment
of Lodge's later years, from 1597 to 1625, that Tenney differs
most sharply from most recent biographers. Lodge's year of
study for a medical degree at Avignon, which required a public
profession of the Roman faith, is sketched against as full and
sympathetic a background as are his student days in Oxford and
London, and high praise is given to his professional devotion
during the plague of 1603 and to the disinterested zeal in the
service of humanity which led him to make public the lessons of
his medical learning and experience, though the bibliographical
argument whereby Tenney seeks to show that his Treatise of
the Plague (1604) was issued for free distribution is not valid.
Even his intestacy at his death of the plague in 1625, which
has been taken as a sign of his characteristic improvidence, is
here attributed to an unselfish devotion to duty which left him
no time to spare for his personal affairs.

In T.L.S. (Feb. 7) Sidney H. Atkins summarizes his previous
arguments to show that some parts of Lodge's A Fig for Mamus
(1595) were written some years previously, and adduces farther
evidence, and a page and a half in the Badcliffe College Sum-
maries of Theses, 1931-1934 is devoted to a thesis on Sources
of the Natural History in the Literary Works of Thomas Lodge
by Deborah Champion Jones,

In the restlessly active and widely varied life of Sir Walter
Malegh 18 writing and literary relations play a comparatively
small part, and in the new biography by Edward Thompson
only a few chapters out of many deal directly with things of the

18 Sir Walter Balegh, by Edward Thompson. Macmillaru pp. xvi+
387. 15s.

246 THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD

mind 3 the remainder being devoted to an account and an
examination of Ralegh as a man of action and of business, at
sea and in Ireland, Virginia, Cornwall, and London. In these
the deeds and character of 'The Last of the Elizabethans 5 are
vividly portrayed, with increasing sympathy and sureness of
touch as the work progresses. The protesting apologiae for
Elizabethan treachery and cruelty in politics and in war of the
opening chapters give place in the closing scenes to unstinted
praise of Ralegh and unrelieved scorn and contempt for Sir
Lewis Stukeley (who probably deserves it) and for Coke and
King James, whose actions offer some openings to a favourable
advocate.

The chapter on Ralegh the 'Poet ; and Friend of Poets * brings
out the basis of spiritual zest for knowledge which underlay
Ralegh's friendship with Spenser, Marlowe, the astronomer
Harriot, and others, and is concerned with Ralegh's poems less
as works of art than as clues to his nature. The BooJce of the
Ocean to Scynthia, though referred to, is not discussed, and his
anxiety to find in Ralegh some glimmer of wit, if not of humour,
betrays Thompson into a misreading of the Faerie Queene son-
net 'Me thought I saw the graue, where Laura lay ', in which the
'celestiall theife' is surely not Spenser but the Faerie Queene
herself. In a later chapter on 'Sherborne ; and The History of
the World 3 Thompson finds more to his purpose in the revelation
of Ralegh's character, and he also gives just praise to the per-
sonal and living quality of the prose in which the History is
written, eagerly adopting Firth's indication of the influence
exerted by Ralegh's thought and style over Milton.

This book and Sargent's work on Sir Edward Dyer (see The
Tear's Work, xv. 209-10) were the occasion of a leading article
in T.L.S. (May 9) on The Tudor Character, which led to a further
discussion between Thompson and the reviewer in the corre-
spondence columns (May 16, 23, and 30), and the same journal
had previously devoted another leading article (Jan. 31) to
Sir Walter Bcdegh's Prose.

Norman A. Brittin (T.L.S., Feb. 21) shows that the date 1577
appended to the dedication of the English translation of Inno-
cent Gentillet's Discours conkre Machiavd by Simon Patericke,

POETRY AND PEOSE 247

published in 1602, was simply taken over from a Latin version
of that date, and therefore furnishes only a terminus a quo for
dating Patericke's work. His further implication that Patericke
was also the signatory of the dedication in this Latin version is
rebutted by Kathleen T. Butler (ibid., March 28), who gives
further details of the French, Latin, and English versions.

The tenth Shakespeare Association Facsimile is a replica not
only of The Life and Death of Gamaliel Batsey lQ but also ofRatseis
Ghost. Each of these anonymous prose pamphlets (both prob-
ably published in 1605) has survived in a single copy, the first
in Oxford and the second in Manchester. The latter was repro-
duced in 1933 by the B/ylands Library (see The Tear's Work,
xiv. 238), but it is convenient to have both together in a single
handy volume. In a brief prefatory note S. H. Atkins culls a few
contemporary allusions to Ratsey's repute as a highwayman.

George Morrow Kahrl (Harvard Studies and Notes in Philo-
logy and Literature, vol. xviii) finds in Eobert Tofte's Annota-
tions in 'The Blazon of lealousie' evidence of a wide familiarity
with Italian literature and of that hatred of women which
generally dictated Tofte's choice of works to be translated. He
also points out that many of Tofte's translations of illustrative
quotations from the Latin poets are original, particularly those
from Propertius and from some works of Ovid, and that they
are in some cases the earliest known English versions.

A Manuscript Work by Sir George Bw is described by R. C.
Bald in M.L.R. (Jan.). This is an autograph manuscript of over
800 pages, written originally in 1614, with additions and altera-
tions till 1621, entitled A Commentary upon the Newe Boulle
of Winchester . . . Especially concerning the Baronage, & ancient
Nobility of England. It refers several times to Buc's earlier work
The Baron, and contains some notes for his later History of
Richard III. Bald gives a full description of the work, and
quotes from it many interesting comments on contemporary
men and events.

19 The Life and Death of Gamaliel Ratsey, ed. by S. H. Atkins. Shake-
speare Assoc. Facsimiles, no. 10. O.TLP. pp. xii+[93]. 6s.

248 THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD

An entertaining biographical sketch of Lady Anne, The
Mother of Francis Bacon, by M. St. Clare Byrne, appeared in
Elackwood's Magazine (Dec. 1934) and should have been men-
tioned last year.

(2) The Earlier Stuart Age and the Commonwealth
By L. 0. MAETEST

AB in previous years a substantial part of this section will be
concerned with studies of Milton, who is sometimes also of
central importance in the discussions of wider topics to be
noticed first.

The nature and effects of Puritanism continue to receive
attention. Theodor Spira, for instance, contributes to Anglia
(Oct T ) some valuable reflections Zum Wesen des Puritanismus,
having reference to recent studies of seventeenth-century litera-
ture, by Willey, Kraus, Schoffler, Eans0skar Wilde, and others.
Spira touches upon such matters as the relations of Puritanism
with scholastic thought, the origins of the conflict between
belief and rationality, and the concern of the reforming spirit
with a unifying conception of life ; and he both deprecates and
avoids any undue simplification of the manifold questions at
issue.

In connexion with Haller's selected Tracts on Liberty, noticed
below (pp. 251-2), A. S. P. Woodhouse provides in the University
of Toronto Quarterly (April) an article-review on Puritanism and
Liberty, in which the distinction is made between those who,
like Milton, regarded liberty as the peculiar prerogative of the
regenerate, and others, like Roger Williams, who passed on to
a completely democratic position, adding equality to liberty in
the political sphere. In the same journal (July) and by the
same writer, the argument is further elaborated in an article on
Milton, Puritanism, and Liberty ; and it is shown how Reforma-
tion and Renaissance met in Milton to give him not only his
individualistic conception of liberty but also his aristocratic
leanings.

'One of the momentous effects of the Renaissance . . . was to
give new life to the idea of the decay of the world by planting

POETRY AND PROSE 249

mutability in the heavens and by stimulating admiration for
Antiquity/ This is the theme developed by George Williamson
in a lengthy treatment of Mutability, Decay, and Seventeenth-
Century Melancholy contributed to E.L.H. (Sept.). The heavens
were no longer to be considered incorruptible and, in spite of the
argument that change in the parts does not necessarily imply
degeneration in the whole, there was general addiction to the
theory that the world was senescent and that 'twas too late to
be ambitious. Williamson sees in this concept the chief source
of seventeenth-century melancholy as well as 'the sounding-
board for the finest eloquence of the time'.

In an article Zum Problem des Barocks in der englischen Dich-
tung (Anglia, Oct.) Priedrich Wild refers to the variety of
contexts in which the term 'baroque' has been thought appro-
priate and shows how in English poets (Chapman, Ben Jonson,
Massinger, and others) the 'baroque' elements are to be found
side by side with tendencies of a quite different origin and charac-
ter. He sees the necessity for what has yet to be furnished,
'eine einheitliche Definition des Barocks . . . und einen Einblick
in die letzten Wesensgriinde der Barockkultur '.

Those who would be acquainted with what England and
Scandinavia knew and thought of each other in the seventeenth
century will find sure guidance and abundant cause for satis-
faction in Ethel Seaton's contribution 1 to the literature of this
subject. This is an important work, not least because it reveals,
with fullness and precision, the circumstances antecedent to the
more thorough awakening of learned and imaginative interest in
Scandinavia which marks the following century in England. It
is difficult to suppose that many significant facts or even details
have escaped Miss Seaton's notice ; yet the details do not blur
the outlines. The main course of the development stands forth
clearly, a development from the ignorance and contempt charac-
teristic of Elizabethan references, to the intimacy and respect
gradually won through trade and travel, political and social

1 Literary Relations of England and Scandinavia in the Seventeenth
Century, by Ethel Seaton (Oxford Studies in Modern. Languages and
Literature). OJLP. pp. xvi+384. 15s.

250 THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD

intercourse, and scholarly investigation. Miss Seaton admits in
lier final chapter, on 'The Scandinavian Impress upon English
Literature ', that the impress was not deep, 'but it can be traced
in many more literary, or would-be literary, works than at
present seems to be realized' ; and this is well illustrated. But
perhaps the main value of her survey lies in its delineations of
the seventeenth-century mind, in one connexion but in many
moods and forms of expression.

The Christian Muse considered by Lily B. Campbell in the
Huntington Library Bulletin (Oct.) is the Urania' made con-
spicuous by Milton's invocation of her, but not then for the first
time distinguished as the Muse of divine poetry rather than of
astronomy. Milton, it is shown, was following a tradition
apparently instituted by Du Bartas in his La Muse chretienne
(1574), and the works of Sidney, Harvey, Spenser, and others
are cited to illustrate the extent to which the Christianized con-
ception of Urania found favour in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries.

In two articles by Marjorie Nicolson, The Telescope and Im-
agination (Mod. Phil, Feb.) and The New Astronomy and
English Literary Imagination ($. in Ph., July), stress is laid upon
the stimulative effect of the discoveries made by Kepler and
Galileo, which, because of their closer connexion with sense per-
ception, are represented as more important in this regard than
the more intellectual Copernican theory. An account is given of
the development of astronomical science in seventeenth-century
England through the use of the telescope, and it is shown how
powerfully the imaginations of Ben Jonson, Donne, and others
were influenced both by the telescope and by what it revealed.
The same writer discusses Milton and the Telescope in E.L.H.
(April), marking the contrast between his early works, which
offer relatively little evidence that he was specially interested or
versed in astronomical lore, and Paradise Lost, where such
evidence is pervasive. Miss Nicolson thinks that Milton not
merely was influenced by what he may have heard or read of
Galileo's discoveries but had at some time 'actual personal
experience with the telescope'; and she connects with this

POETRY AND PROSE 251

experience the numerous effects of distance and of spatial vast-
ness which Paradise Lost presents.

A full exposition, by way of passages drawn from many
authors, of Anglican thought in the seventeenth century could
not fail to be of interest to students of English prose and its
intellectual conditioning during that epoch ; and the compila-
tion 2 by Paul Elmer More and Frank Leslie Cross which has this
end in view has been made on a scale and with a care that should
give it enduring as well as definitive value. The extracts are
ranged under nineteen heads, such as The Anglican Faith, The
Bible, Prayer, The Sacraments, Ethics, Caroline Piety, and each
section has its subdivisions. Exponents of the Anglican faith
and attitude will find here a notably useful store of texts, all the
more because some of the citations are from works which
apparently have not been reprinted. There is an introductory
essay by More on 'The Spirit of Anglicanism' and an historical
account of 'Anglicanism in the Seventeenth Century 7 by Felix
R, Arnott.

Another very welcome assemblage is that of nineteen tracts,
reproduced in facsimile, c upon the central theme of all revolu-
tionary discussion from 1637 to 1647, the doctrine of liberty'.
These appeared in 1934 in two volumes prepared by William
Haller, 3 who introduces them and adds notes, bibliography, and
appendixes in a separate volume. The work, which was not
noticed last year, is extremely useful, not only because it makes
the texts more generally available but because it enables its
readers to follow, with Haller's guidance, the course of the de-
bate. Milton's Areopagitica and Williams's The Bloudy Tenent
are excluded as already easily accessible, but they are frequently
mentioned and brought into relation with the general develop-
ment. Students of Milton will be particularly grateful for the

2 Anglicanism: The Thought and Practice of the Church of England,
Illustrated from the Religious Literature of the Seventeenth Century, ed. by
Paul Elmer More and Frank Leslie Cross. S.P.C.IL pp.lxxvi+811. 21s.

3 Tracts on Liberty in the Puritan Revolution 16 38-164? ', ed. "by William
Haller. Columbia and O.U. Presses. Vol. i, Commentary, pp. xv-f 197.
VoL ii, Facsimiles, Part i, pp. 339. Vol. iii, Facsimiles, Part ii, pp. 405.
63*.

252 THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD

Appendix in which his repute during the years immediately fol-
lowing 1643 is examined and the points made, in opposition to
Masson, that Milton was then little known to the pamphleteers
and the public at large save as the exponent of scandalous views
on divorce, that he was not closely associated with any recog-
nized sectarian groups, and that Areopagitica attracted little
attention. One of the outstanding figures represented here is
William Walwyn, whose pamphlets are important not only for
their doctrine and spirit but for their illustrations of the stylistic
movement, traced by the editor, away from formality and
decoration towards the more popular idiom later favoured by
Bunyan and Defoe.

H. Belloc's study of Milton's personality and writings, 4 or of
'the Miltonic Episode in English Letters', recalls Johnson's
Life in its generosity of praise and its trenchancy of adverse
criticism. He also shares, though with a Catholic difference,
Johnson's distaste for the poet's religious, political, and social
heterodoxies, and finds very little to commend even in the style
of the prose works ; but he is full of admiration for Milton the
poet, when the creative spirit was most alive in him. Belloc has
not found it necessary to quote his authorities, and some of the
most interesting parts of his work are those which record his
own aesthetic judgements. These must command respect, and
some of them are of considerable value for their freshness and
nicety of perception. If others are less convincing it is because
they are either too familiar or too impressionistic and sweeping.
The somewhat dogmatic tone in which, for instance, we are in-
formed that c the true word for Milton's "Paradise Regained " is
"Bad" ', will please those who like to be told what to think or
what parts of Milton's work are not worth reading, and it may
irritate others into a profitable reconsideration of their opinions.
But Belloc's whole attitude to Milton, as well as his pronounce-
ments and comments upon individual aspects and passages,
deserves attention, not least from those who do not share it.

Merritt Y. Hughes has edited Paradise Lost? with an intro-

4 M$fcw,byHilaireBelloe. Cassell. pp.316. 12s.

5 JoJm Mitton, Pa?radi&e Lost, ed. by Merritt Y. Hughes. New York:
Doubleday, Doran. pp. lvi+412. $1.

POETRY AND PROSE 253

duction which is valuable for its bringing together of what is
known and thought about Milton's intellectual habits and back-
ground.

Walter Skeat, whose verse translation ofEpitaphium Damonis
appeared in 1933, has now added to it renderings of the Elegies
and Silvae.* These are not less accurate because of some
expansions of the Latin and because of the attempted approxi-
mation to Milton's own diction and rhythmical habits; and
they give an impression of real poetic endowment in the trans-
lator.

W. B. Parker's discussion of Some Problems in the Chronology
of Milton's Early Poems (R.E.S., July) begins with a demon-
stration that the words 'three and twentieth year' in the
Sonnet 'How soon hath time 5 are compatible with the assign-
ment of this poem to December 1632 ; and partly on the basis
of this finding conclusions are suggested with regard to the
dating of other poems published in groups in the editions of
1645 and 1673. It is noteworthy that Parker, like Tillyard,
inclines to an earlier date than has usually been accepted for
L* Allegro and II Penseroso. Arcades is placed in the early part
of 1633.

In an article on The Latin Pastorals of Milton and ' Castiglione
(P.M.L.A., June) Thomas Perrin Harrison, Jnr., presents the
evidence which he has gathered to show that Epitaphium Damo-
nis was affected by Milton's acquaintance with Castiglione's
Alcon.

It is shown by George W. Whiting in E.E.S. (Oct.) that the
tract Of Reformation Touching Church-Discipline in England
was Milton's Reply to Lord Digby, i.e. that it was mainly directed
at The Third Speech of the Lord Digby (1640), the argument of
which and often the phrases are closely paralleled in Milton's
pages. The same scholar, under heading Milton and that
'learned English Writer' (T.L.S., Jan. 10), identifies the writer
referred to in the same tract Of Reformation as Francis Bacon

6 Milton's Lament for Damon and his other Latin Poems rendered into
English, by Walter Skeat, with Preface and Introductions by E. H.
VisiaJc. O.U.P. pp.vi+109. &?.

254 THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD

(Oertaine Considerations touching the better Pacification and
Edification of the Church of England, 1604 and 1640). WMting
also considers in.M.L.$. (Oct.) Milton and the 'Postscript' (sc. to
An Answer to a Booke entituled An Humble Remonstrance^ 1641),
maintaining that Milton was not the author. The strongest
argument is that the author refers to Bucer's De Eegno Christi,
whereas Milton in 1644 (The Judgement of Martin Bucer) states
that to the best of his remembrance he had not known Sneer's
pronouncements on divorce previously to that year.

Writing On Milton's Early Literary Programme in Mod. Phil.
(Aug.) William R. Parker meets the theory that the well-known
passage in The Season of Church Government represents a de-
finite assertion of what Milton intended to do. Parker maintains
that taken in its context of an anti-episcopal tract it is rather
concerned with * religious sanction for the three great literary
forms which, as an aspirant to poetic honors, he must con-
sider ' ; a good case is made for the view that the brief model 3 of
the epic form mentioned by Milton cannot be regarded as an
anticipation of Paradise Regained, and it is suggested that
Milton probably had not any of his later compositions in mind.
Parker also discusses in J.E.G.P. (April) The Trinity Manu-
script and Milton's Plans for a Tragedy. In observing the non-
Hellenic features in some of the sketches he is in agreement with
Schorck, whose work on this subject was noticed last year
(p. 236), but Parker does not draw the same conclusions.

In an article entitled The Sources of EilconoJclastes : A Eesurvey
(S. in Ph., Jan.) George W. Whiting opposes the view that
Milton was greatly indebted to the fugitive pamphlet BiJcon
Alethine and seeks to show that Milton's work is based rather
upon May's The History of the Parliament of England (1647) and
several other sources consulted 'with industrie and judicious
paines*.

George Williamson contributes to S* in Ph. (Oct.) a full dis-
cussion, having reference to Saurat and others, of Milton and
the Morialist Heresy. His main and well realized intention is
that of bringing Milton's attitude into relation with the general
current of contemporary thought, especially with the denial of
divine providence implied in mortalist or Epicurean doctrines of

POETRY AND PROSE 255

the day. 'To the complex challenge which was centered but not
contained in mortalism, and provoked in an age deeply agitated
by the claims of reason, there were many who asserted eternal
providence and justified the ways of God to man, but none so
audacious as the Milton who incorporated the mortalist heresy
into his justification.'

InP.M.L.A. (March), under heading Milton's Debt to Wolleb,
Maurice Kelley presents the results of a thorough study con-
cerning the relations between De Doctrina Christiana and
Wolleb's Compendium Theologiae Christianae. Numerous close
parallels are adduced to show that the debt ' was considerable,
especially in Milton's Book II, and that the De Doctrina is thus
less original than has been supposed. It is also shown, however,
that Milton's indebtedness was by no means of a slavish order,
since he verified his borrowings and incorporated them in a
system of his own, depending ultimately upon his reading of the
Scriptures. In a concluding paragraph Kelley indicates how the
comparison of the two works contributes to a fuller understand-
ing of the De Doctrina and its author, and how it substantiates
the connexion of Milton's theology with the thought of the
Protestant Reformation.

The same writer seeks in his article on Milton and the Third
Person of the Trinity (S. in Ph., April) to show that although
Milton assigned specific functions to that Person it is not to be
identified with the Spirit invoked as Milton's ( Muse ', which was
rather 'a personification of various attributes of God the
Father '. Kelley makes much of the assertion in the De Doctriwa :
Qui a Patre, non se a seipso, et petitur et datur, nee Deus esse
potest, nee invocandus.'

The importance of Milton's De Doctrina Christiana for the
interpretation of Paradise Lost at various points is illustrated
again (see The Year's Work xv, p. 240) by Kelley in T.L.S.
(Feb. 21).

Arthur Sewell, writing in M.L.R. (Jan.) on Milton and the
Mosaic Law, traces the evolution of Milton's views concerning
the binding force of that Law for regenerate man, who as he
came to think needed but the guidance of the Holy Spirit.
Sewell argues that it was not until after 1659 that Milton reached
the position which he takes up in ch. xxvii of the De Doctrina

256 THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD

' Tola lex Mosaica aboletur ' since in the Treatise of Civil Power
he considers the question 'undecided 5 ; Book XII of Paradise
Lost shows that he has made up his mind by 1666.

Under heading Milton and the Rabbinical Bible Besa R.
Dworsky and Theodor Gaster discuss in T.L.S. (Apr. 25 and
May 9) the possibility that Milton was influenced by the Com-
mentary of Rashi when composing Paradise Lost, i. 19-22.

Symmetry in Milton's 'Samson Agonistes* is considered in
MJ/.N. (June) by William R. Parker, who points to various
instances iot which there is a close correspondence of length
between speeches or between sections of single speeches. The
same writer argues that The Kommos of Milton's 'Samson Ago-
nistes ' (S. in Ph., April) extends from line 1660 to the end of the
play and not merely to line 1707 } the end of the Chorus, since a
kommos was c a j oint lamentation of Chorus and actors ! or, accord-
ing to later Greek practice, a joint expression of strong emotion.
It is farther suggested that Aeschylus' Supplices provides a near
parallel to the form assumed by the kommos, thus understood,
in Samson Agonistes.

P. W. Timberlake's article on Hilton and Euripides, in
The Parrott Presentation Volume (see pp. 184-5), gathers up the
numerous proofs or hints in Milton's works of his Euripidean
study and suggests some reasons why he should have found it
congenial.

H. C. Wyld's article in Eng. Stud. (April) on The Significance
of y n and -en in Milton's Spelling, with a view to ascertaining
the poet's pronunciation rather than his text, has been noticed
above (Chapter, ii, p. 53).

In an article on Milton and the Villa Diodati (R.E.S., Jan.)
William S. Clark disposes of the widely accepted legend which
connects Milton with the house known to Byron in the district of
Cologny, near Geneva. 'No Diodati residence could have been
located at Cologny before 1710, while the Villa Diodati did not
come into existence until close to a half-century after Milton's
death/

J. Milton French contributes to T.L.S. (Dec. 21) a Record
Office document concerning An Action against Milton, in which

POETRY AND PROSE 257

Sir Robert Pye in 1646 seeks an injunction against 'one John
Melton of London 3 for hindering the complainant from taking
possession of the Forest Hill property apparently mortgaged to
both parties by Richard Powell.

T. 0. Mabbott considers as Contemporary Evidence for Royal
Favour to Milton (N. and Q., Sept. 28) the reference by Peter
Heimbach in 1666 to honours which Milton had refused.

Edward S. Parsons, editor in 1902 of The Earliest Life of
Milton, gives in PM.L.A, (Dec.) his reasons for doubting Helen
Darbishire's suggestion (in Early Lives of Milton, 1932) that
The Authorship of the Anonymous Life of Milton may be
attributed to John Phillips.

To M.L.N. (Jan. Defoe on Milton) Edward G. Fletcher
contributes 'two previously unnoted Milton references', one
alleging and seeking to account for Milton's preference of
Paradise Regained to Paradise Lost.

Leon Howard records in the Huntington Library Bulletin
(April) what is known at present about Early American Copies
of Milton., and deduces from this knowledge a tentative estimate
of the extent to which Milton and his works were known in
America prior to 1815.

The lengthy article by Ruth 0. Wallerstein on The Develop-
ment of the Rhetoric and Metre of the Heroic Couplet in P.M.L.A .
(March) makes a real contribution to a subject which has often
been treated more slightly. It is one thing, for instance, to
accept Waller's statement that Fairfax's translation of Tasso
had been his model and to observe what he might have learnt
from the movement of some of the final couplets in Fairfax's
stanzas ; but it is more to recognize that Fairfax's versification
altogether was of a kind that might justify Waller's assertion,
and further to show how the development of the e closed ' couplet
went hand in hand with a growing appreciation of its rhetorical
and antithetical possibilities. The new harmonies are often
found in translation, and Miss Wallerstein makes one excellent
point in showing how the translator tended to state in c more
explicit and logically complete terms' the flash of original
inspiration which he could not capture for himself. Throughout
there is a discriminating sense of the peculiar attainments of

2762.16

258 THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD

evenness or subtlety in this form by the outstanding exponents,
Drayton, Ben Jonson, Sandys, Falkland, Denham, and Waller,
and a nice appreciation of the extent to which the closed couplet
was established during the first half of the seventeenth century.
In a still fuller treatment it would be possible to dwell upon such
anticipations as may be found in the concluding couplets of
Elizabethan sonnets.

On the strength of MS. 5301 E in the National Library of
Wales, Herbert G. Wright (R.E.S., April) is inclined to give an
affirmative answer to the question Was ffeorge Herbert the Author
of 'Jacula Pnidentum ' ? The manuscript, which was once in the
possession of Sir Henry Herbert, the poet's brother, gives a list
of seventy-two proverbs which agree for the most part with the
opening pages of the first edition (1640) 'By Mr. G. H. *

Useful work has been done on Richard Crashaw's life and
art. His poetic development and his essential poetic gifts are the
subject of a careful and valuable study by Ruth C. Wallerstein, 7
whose object is in part to estimate the effects upon his writings
of his attention to neo-Latin and neo-Greek epigram, to Marino,
and to emblem and impresa. She maintains, however, that
although these influences give to his poetry much of its manifest
quality, his own meditative habits, his strong religious feeling,
and Ms ecstatic temperament were of more fundamental im-
portance ; these may come to expression as striking interrup-
tions of his earlier and more imitative or derivative endeavours,
and they are allowed fall and masterly play in the St. Teresa
poems attributed to his latest period. The true understanding of
Crashaw's poetry calls for a fuller knowledge of his life and
reading than is yet available, and Miss Wallerstein perhaps relies
too firmly on the meagre findings of her predecessors. Some of
her statements seem a little questionable, as that Wordsworth's
Immortality Ode owes much to Crashaw. But the main drift of
her argument, in the course of which fresh suggestions are made
on points of major or minor interest, is clearly and persuasively
set forth.

7 Richard Crashaw: A Study in Style and Poetic Development, by Ruth
C. Wallerstein (Univ. of Wisconsin Studies in Language and Literature,
No. 37). Madison, pp. 160. $2.00.

POETRY AND PROSE 259

Austin Warren (T.L.S., Nov. 16) gives good reasons for his
belief that Crashaw himself was not responsible for the alteration
of the original (1646) heading of 'An Apologie for the precedent
Hymne' ('Hymnes' 1648), viz. on St. Teresa, which heading in
Carmen Deo Nostro, 1652, i.e. subsequently to the poet's death,
is enlarged by the addition of 'as hauing been writt when the
author was yet among the protestantes *. The poem itself in no
way justifies this addition which, as Warren points out, may
have resulted from a conjecture of Thomas Carr, the editor of
Carmen Deo Nostro.

The same writer shows in Mod. Phil. (Feb.) the likelihood
that Richard Crashaw was ordained by the Bishop of Ely, be-
coming a priest not later than 1639, when he was made Curate
of Little St. Mary's, Cambridge ('Curate' seeming to convey the
modern sense of assistant or deputy). That he continued to
serve Little St. Mary's until his departure from Cambridge in
'January, 1643', may be inferred from the fact that in April
1642 the Fellows of Peterhouse elected him 'catechist and
curate 5 for the ensuing year, 'catechist' in Warren's view;
meaning here primarily ( theological tutor or lecturer '. In these
ecclesiastical capacities he would have ample opportunities for
earning the reputation described by David Lloyd in 1668 for
'thronged Sermons on each Sunday and Holiday, that ravished
more like Poems . . . scattering not so much Sentences as
Extasies, his soul breathing in each word'. It may be added
that the style of the prose letter which he wrote from Leyden
in February '1643' lends credibility to this account of the
alleged sermons.

The relations between Vaughan and Wordsworth are con-
sidered in R.E.S. (July) by Helen N. McMaster, who believes,
justly in the view of the present writer, that too much has been
made of the similarities between 'The Retreate' and the Im-
mortality Ode. Even if it be a fact that Wordsworth owned a
copy of Silex Scintillans it has yet to be proved that he was
influenced by it, and, as Miss McMaster points out, it is note-
worthy that Wordsworth nowhere mentions Vaughan and did
not include anything by him in the Poems and Extracts (first
published in 1905). The differences* between the two poems

260 THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD

most in question are also shown to deserve more consideration
than they have sometimes received.

A short treatise by Q. Iredale on Thomas Traherne 8 as poet
and as philosopher is concerned largely with that poet's con-
ception of nature and its expression in verse and in prose. His
philosophy, which sometimes hampered the poetic artist, 'per-
vaded the whole of his work ; but the keystone of his philosophy
was the poet's experience of nature 5 . Perhaps the most valuable
part of this work is the chapter on 'Development from Books',
in which the quality and effects of his 'Belesenheit' are briefly
estimated.

Mention should have been made last year of a Traherne
anthology, 9 with an illuminating introduction by C Q'.

The book of skilful translations into Danish verse of Herrick's
poems by Viggo J. von Holstein Rathlou, first published in
1907, has now been enlarged 10 to comprise about two hundred
and fifty pieces.

Writing on The Source of Quarks 9 s Emblems in Library (Sept.)
Gordon S. Haight considers the engravings with reference to the
original Pia Desideria and Typus Mundi. Some of the modifica-
tions appear to turn upon the friendship between Quarles, Ben-
lowes, and Phineas Fletcher ; most of them were made to adapt
the plates to Quarles's poems, and contemporary circumstances
are perhaps reflected in one or two. Haight also discusses the
influence of the original texts, believing that its extent has been
exaggerated. He observes, too, that Books I and II, which are
indebted to Typus Mundi> were written after the other three
books and just at the time of Quarles's first acquaintance with
Jletcher, whose verse forms are here followed. The general
influence of Sylvester in matter and style is also affirmed.

* Thomas Traherne, by Q. freckle. Oxford: BlackwelL pp. 87. &?.

9 JelMfaes of Thomas Traheme, ed.by Sir Arthur Quiller-Couoh. 1934.
Dobell. pp. xxix-{~114. 3s.

10 Hesperid&r og Noble Nwnre af dm BritisJce Poet Robert Herrick,
oversat til Dansk, by Dr. Viggo J. von Holstein Bathlou. Copenhagen:
Pbul Brainier, pp. v+116, $.75 kr.

POETRY AND PROSE 261

The same writer shows in T.L.S. (April 11) the difficulty in-
volved in the statement by Quarles's widow that he served as
cupbearer to the Queen of Bohemia, seeing that another name is
associated with that office in the German State Papers at the
Record Office. Quarles was, however, among the Earl of Arun-
del's train when the Earl attended the Princess on her journey
to Heidelberg in 1612/13 after her marriage. In T.L.S. (Oct. 17)
Haight presents evidence that the poet's sojourn in Ireland as
secretary to Ussher began in 1626 and lasted until the winter
1629/30 and not, as it has seemed from Fuller's Worthies, until
1641.

Robert Lathrop Sharp contributes Observations on Meta-
physical Imagery to the Sewanee Review (Oct.-Dec.) and illus-
trates the treatment by metaphysical poets of imagery which
they inherited from the Elizabethans.

A valuable addition to the number of printed seventeenth-
century diaries is made in the publishing from the manuscript
in the Queen's College Library of the diary u made from 1626 to
1640 and from 1653 to 1654 by Thomas Crosfield, Fellow of the
College 1627-C.1640 and Rector of Spennithorne, Yorkshire,
1649-63. Hitherto extracts only have been available; F. S.
Boas, who supplies a full introduction and notes, now presents
all the most interesting portions, amounting to about three-
fourths of the whole. Crosfield shows the width of his interests
by adding to his record of circumstances and incidents of Col-
lege and University life comments upon affairs of church and
state in England and elsewhere, and items concerning amuse-
ments and spectacles, especially music and the drama. Thus he
gives some information not otherwise known about the five
chief London companies of players, derived from a member of
the King's Revels Company, who visited Oxford in 1634; and
he provides what Boas describes as c one of the most comprehen-
sive lists of Elizabethan card-games', without disturbing the
impression that he was a true lover of learning and a conscien-
tious teacher.

11 The Diary of Thomas Crosfield, ed. by Frederick S. Boas. O.TJ.P.
for Royal Society of Literature, pp. xxix+169. 12$. fid.

262 THE ELIZABETHAN PEEIOD

The story of Thomas Puller's life, presented in great detail by
John Eglington Bailey in 1874, is retold 12 by Dean B. Lyman,
who has aimed at and appears to have achieved *an adequate,
carefully documented, concise and readable biography 5 and "the
establishment of a more accurate chronology ' of the events than
has hitherto been available. The volume should be serviceable,
especially to those who cannot refer to Bailey's work.

The works of John Layer, who gathered materials in the
early seventeenth century for a History of Cambridgeshire, have
no great literary value, but it is well that the ascertained facts
of his life and writings should have been assembled and en-
larged. 13 Layer was evidently an antiquary of some accom-
plishment and repute, whose collections are still valuable to
local historians, and Dr. Palmer's account of him appears to have
been put together with great care.

A Scots Sermon-Squib, containing references to ecclesiastical
affairs in Scotland in 1638 and discussed at length by W. Eraser
Mitchell in T.L.S. (June 13 and Oct. 24), is the Tockmanty ' or
c Bed-Shankes J Sermon, which if not falsely dated 1642 is the
earliest specimen of its kind. Mitchell raises the question
whether an edition dated 1733 may be connected with Swift or
some member of his circle.

In A Note on Thomas May (R.E.S., April) 0. H. Wilkinson
gives reasons for his opinion that May was the author of A True
Relation of the late Expedition of His Excellency r , Robert Earle of
Essex, far the Relief of Gloucester. With The Description of the
Fight at Newbury (1643).

A. T. Shillinglaw, referring to tubienski's Die Orundlagen des
ethisch-politischen Systems von Eobbes (The Year's Work, xiv,
p. 243), argues in Eng. Stud. (Jan.) 'against supposing that
any considerable part of Leviathan existed in Latin before
being written in English'.

John Carter gives in T.L.S. (Aug. 22) an account of one more

12 The Great Tom Futter, by Bean B, Lyman. Univ. of California and
O,U. Presses, pp. xii+198. ICte.

18 John Layer (1586-1640) of Shepreth, Cambridgeshire, a Seventeenth-
Century Local Historian* by W. M. Palmer. Cambridge: Bowes and
Bowes, for the Cambridge Antiquarian Society, pp. 121. 10*. 6<Z.

POETRY AND PROSE 263

copy of Browne's Urne-Buriall (1658) carrying corrections in
the author's hand; these confirm the corrections observed in
the six copies previously examined and described (The Year's
Work, xiv, p. 247).

A careful reissue (not a mere reprint) of the enlarged Corn-
pleat Angler, the 'Fifth Edition' (1676), typographically con-
temporary with that edition and containing all its cuts, is now
available in the World's Classics series. 14 The Oxford Press has
thus performed a service to scholars besides gratifying the
"common reader' who would have not only the words but the
flavour of the original edition.

The Commonwealth period is naturally attractive at present
to German students of English history and literature. Crom-
well, regarded as a type of the modern Fuhrer, is the subject of
one work ; 15 Harrington's Oceana of another, in which the Ger-
manic quality and origins of Harrington's conception are em-
phasized ; 16 and in a third 17 Henry More provides for the author
a sad example of gifts and energies wasted in other-worldly
speculations at a time when more Cromwells and Miltons were
needed to make England safe for National-Socialist ideals.

The following entries refer to abstracts of dissertations:
Milton and Ovid, by M. C. Brill (Cornell) ; John Donne the Rhetor,
by A. M. Wasilefsky (Cornell) ; A Collection and Explanation of
the Folklore in Milton's English Poems, by E. C. Kirkland
(Northwestern University) ; Sir Thomas Browne of the Eeligio
Medici, by W. L. McKnight (Pittsburg) ; Scientific Rationalism
in the Seventeenth Century, by Jacob H. Abers (Stanford Uni-
versity).

14 The Com/pleat Angler, By Izaak Walton and Charles Cotton, intro-
duction by John Buchan. O.U.P. pp. xxiv+322. 2s.

15 Cromwell: Vier Essays uber die Fuhrung einer Nation, by H. Oncken.
Berlin: G. Grote. pp. vi+147.

16 James Harrington und sein Wunschbild vom germanischen Staate,
by Christian Wershofen. Bonn: Peter Hanstein Verlagsbuchhandlung.
Bonner Studien zur englischen Philologie. pp, 73. RM. 3.

17 Henry More in Oambridge f by Heinz Gunther Jentsch. (Go'ttingen
diss.) pp. 95.

264 THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD

By F. S. BOAS

IK TO!, xiii, p. 219, of jPAe Year's Work mention was made of
the appearance of the first six volumes of the Columbia Univer-
sity edition of Milton's complete works, 18 and of the critical
canons on which it was based. During the period 1932-4 nine
further volumes have been issued, though it is to be noted that
these do not include xi-xii, which are to follow, as also the
concluding vol. xviii. Except for the Histories of Britain and
Moscovia the nine volumes contain prose works in Latin, with
an English translation either specially written for this edition
or adapted from an earlier version. Notes are added on the
Latin texts and the translations, including in vol. xvii the
detailed notes by C. R. Sumner on his version of De Doctrina
Christiana, slightly revised and augmented. All students of
Milton will look forward to the early completion of this splendid
achievement of American scholarship.

18 The Works of John Milton. Columbia Univ. Press and O.U.P.
General editor, Frank Allen Patterson; editors: Allan Abbott, Harry
Morgan Ayres, Donald Lemen Clark, John ErsMne, William Haller,
George Philip Krapp, W. P. Trent. Vol. vii, Joannis Miltoni Angli
Pro Populo Anglicano Defensio, ed. by Clinton W. Keyes, with a transla-
tion by Samuel Lee Wolff, pp. 587 ; vols. viii and ix, Defensio Secunda
and Pro Se Defensio, ed. by Eugene J. Strittmatter, with the translation
by George Burnett, 1809, revised by Moses Hadas, pp. 266, 308 ; vol. x,
The History of Britain and A Brief History of Moscovia, ed. by G. P.
Krapp, pp. 387 ; vol. xi, Artis Logicae Plenior Institidio, ed. and trans-
lated by Allan H. Gilbert, pp. 538 ; vols. xiv-xvii, De Doctrina Chri-
stiana, ed. by James Holly Hanford and Waldo Hilary Dunn, with the
translation of Charles B. Sumner. pp. 403, 409, 381, 587. 1932-4.
To be completed in 18 vols., 24 the set.

THE RESTORATION
By F. E. BtTBD

THE two facts which stand out most prominently from a survey
of Restoration studies for 1935 are that the fascination of the
drama is as compelling as ever and that scholarly interest in
Pepys as a man of affairs is increasing. Among the poets
Rochester enjoys an unusual degree of attention. There is, too,
an important treatise from France on the changes in the intel-
lectual outlook of Europe during the period 1680-1715.

Montague Summers has followed up his volume on The
Restoration Theatre, wherein he was concerned with the manage-
ment and mechanics of the playhouse (see The Year's Work, xv.
2512), with a lengthy discussion of the plays and playwrights
of the years 166082. (Dry den and the heroic drama are, how-
ever, withheld for inclusion in a later volume of Summers's serial
history.) The Playhouse of Pepys 1 falls into five chapters. The
first is concerned with Davenant's work as dramatist and pro-
ducer in Caroline and Commonwealth times, for where authors
were productive before as well as after 1660 Summers pays due
attention to their early work, and so brings out the continuity
of the dramatic tradition. Davenant's managerial activities
after 1660, the career of Thomas Killigrew, and the history of
the public theatres until the union of the Duke's Company and
the King's Company in 1682 are narrated in fall detail in the
second chapter. The remaining three chapters, occupying 300
pages, are devoted to the dramatists who wrote for these com-
panies. Summers rejects 'any purely artificial segregation' of
their plays under "clouterly headings of groups or imaginary
tendencies' (e.g. ' Tragedy and Opera', 'Jonsonian Element'),
and instead considers his authors 'more or less biographically } .
What this means is not made clear, but in actual practice Sum-
mers compromises between a chronological and a qualitative
division, his last three chapters dealing respectively with 'The

1 The Playhouse of Pepys, by Montague Summers. Kegan Paul. pp.
xv+485. 21s,

266 THE EBSTOEAHON

Earlier Restoration Dramatists', 'The Top-wits and the Men of
Quality', and 'The Minor Dramatists'. Such a division proves
less helpful than the one rejected. In dealing with individual
authors Summers accumulates the details of their biography
(often adding to existing information), narrates at some length
the plots of their plays, and gives particulars of the sources, the
performers, and the stage-history. The result is an encyclo-
paedic rather than a critical survey, and any curiosity that the
student may have concerning the substance of obscure and not
easily accessible plays will be readily satisfied by reference to
this exhaustive volume. Its literary judgements, however,
should not always be accepted without question, for Summers is
as reluctant to admit that there are any bad plays as that there
are any good present-day critics of the Restoration period.

From the same author comes A Bibliography of the Restoration
Drama* a useful list of plays acted or unacted, published or in
manuscript, for the years 1660-1700. If a dramatist has but one
play first acted or published within those limits, the whole of his
dramatic works are included. The original date and place of
production of acted plays are given where possible, as are all
editions that appeared during an author's lifetime. Later
editions of any significance and all recent editions are, it is
claimed, recorded. Omissions can, however, be found; for
instance, Summers's own edition of Otway is listed, but not
the more recent one by J. C. Ghosh. Summers himself repairs
certain omissions of plays in his Bibliographies and Checklists
(T.L.S., April 25).

Milton C. Nahm's edition of the Worcester College MS. of
John Wilson's The Cheats* is valuable both for its introductory
monograph on the dramatist and for its presentation for the first
time of a prompt-copy text of considerable interest for its
illustration of the methods of Restoration censorship. A long
opening chapter gives in considerable detail the facts of Wilson's

2 A Biblwgra/phy of the Restoration Drama, by Montague Summers.
Fortune Press, pp. 143. 15s.

8 John TFOson's 'The Cheats', ed. by Milton C. Nahm from the MS.
in the Library of Worcester College, Oxford. Oxford :BlackwelL pp.ix+
280. Ws.Gd.

THE RESTORATION 267

life, to which Nahm's own researches have made important con-
tributions. This is followed by a discussion of the conditions
under which The Cheats was acted and by a study of the sources.
Nahm shows that Wilson was a c son of Ben' both in his general
approach to drama and in his detailed borrowings and imita-
tions. Wilson's debts to other predecessors are also closely
investigated, with the result that little is left to Wilson himself
except credit for making good use of his loans. Nahna then
turns to textual problems, and presents the results of his colla-
tion of the Worcester College MS. with the four quartos. He
shows that the former, the playhouse copy bearing the censorial
marks of Sir Henry Herbert, was almost completely rewritten
and that a new manuscript was prepared for submission to
L'Estrange for licence to print. In the process of revision not
only were old speeches modified, fresh ones added, new literary
allusions inserted, and spelling and punctuation changed to con-
form to the printer's practice, but the last scene was rewritten
and the conclusion of the play thereby radically altered. It is
interesting to note that L'Estrange allowed for publication all
the material marked for deletion by Herbert. Nahm's text of
the play follows, with slight modifications, the playhouse copy,
and carefully reproduces its distinctive features, including the
alterations of the prompter and of Herbert. Needless to say,
such a text is designed for the specialist who has already formed
his literary judgement of the play from one of the quartos
specifically prepared by Wilson for the reader. In an appendix
Nahm gives important additions first appearing in the quartos,
and there is a section of explanatory notes and commentary.

Albert S. Borgman's biography of William Mountfort 4 is
modestly offered as an * extended footnote 3 to Colley Gibber's
eulogy of this promising young actor in his Apology. Borgman
has little to add to the few facts already known about Mount-
fort's private Hfe. In concentrating on his theatrical career,
Borgman's method is to give detailed accounts not only of the
four plays from Mountfort's pen, but also of all those in which

4 The Life and Death of William Mountfort, by Albert S. Borgman.
(Harvard Studies in English, xv.) Harvard Univ. and O.TL Presses,
pp. 221. 105. 6d.

268 THE RESTORATION

he is known to have performed, however unimportant his role.
This information is frequently interesting in itself, if not always
strictly relevant to Mountfort's biography. Borgman's diffi-
culty in expanding a footnote to the scope of a volume is sug-
gested again by the fact that he has to devote over seventy
pages of text and appendix to the unhappy story of Mountfort's
death at the hands of Captain Richard Hill. This has been told
at length before, but Borgman is able to add a few vivifying
details from manuscript sources.

Among the articles and notes concerned with Restoration
drama T. C. Macaulay's French and English Drama in the, Seven-
teenth Century: Some Contrasts and Parallels (Essays and Studies,
xx) is perhaps the most interesting to the non-specialist student.
With keen critical insight he discusses notable developments in
the two national dramas during the century, and stresses the
fact that they remained in all essentials wholly dissimilar. He
notes, as especially characteristic of English drama of the
Restoration, the elevation of wit, which was not generally in-
dulged in French comedy, the persistence of the more robust
qualities of earlier seventeenth-century drama, and the wise
refusal of the tragic writers to be limited (particularly in their
characterization) by the unities of Time and Place.

In The Restoration Stage in Newspapers and Journal., 1660-
1700 (M.L.R., Oct.) Sybil Rosenfeld transcribes and classifies
items of theatrical interest from newspapers in the Burney and
Bodleian collections and from Motteux's Gentleman's Journal.
The section on c Special Performances and Playhouse News'
contains several references to royal and ambassadorial visits to
the theatre, and records the occasionally fatal outbursts of
rowdyism that marred performances. Another section of * Bio-
graphical Details ' includes official announcements by the Master
of the Revels, while the extracts from Motteux provide agree-
able chit-chat about the plays and playwrights of the moment.

A, L. Bader, in The Modena Troupe in England (M.L.N.,
June), quotes from a Public Record Office document the names
of the Italian comedians who visited England in 1678. W. J.
Lawrence warns theatrical historians that no inferences con-

THE RESTORATION 269

cerning Restoration methods of staging can safely be drawn
from the plates in Settle's The Empress of Morocco (T.L.S.,
July 11). In 'The Princess of Cleve* and Sentimental Comedy
(R.E.S., April) Thomas B. Stroup finds Lee's so-called tragedy,
acted in 1681, to be interesting as an early instance of the transi-
tion from the heroic play to sentimental comedy. The Duke
Nemours in this play is identified with Rochester by Graham
Greene (Rochester and Lee, T.L.S., Nov. 2), who submits fresh
evidence in support of the similarity first noted by Montague
Summers. W. J. Lawrence comments on the dates given in
Greene's letter (ibid., Nov. 9). John 0. Hodges, in a note On the
Date of Congreve's Birth (Mod. Phil., Aug.), argues in favour
of Malone's date of February 1670. Two Wycherley Letters,
dated 1677 and 1685 and addressed to the Earl of Mulgrave, are
transcribed by Robert J. Allen from the Orrery Papers in the
Harvard College Library (T.L.8., April 18). The possibility that
he was educated at St. Paul's School is mentioned by Ivan
Mavor in Wycherley and St. PauVs School (ibid., Nov. 9). Ed-
ward N. Hooker, in Dryden's Allusion to the Poet of Excessive Wit
(N. and Q., June 15), quotes Dennis's statement that the poet
referred to in the Parallel of Poetry and Painting was Wycherley
and that the particular reference was to The Plain Dealer. In
Some Notes on Dry den ^ Cowley, and Shadwdl (ibid., Feb. 9)
Harold Brooks quotes allusions to these poets from the anony-
mous Marriage Asserted (1674) and Eemarlcs upon Eemargues
(1673). Paul B. Anderson, in Buckingham's Chemist (T.L.S.,
Oct. 3), gives some particulars of the miscellaneous literary
activity, which included play writing, of Dr. Peter Bellon.

The more important of this year's Dryden studies also relate
to the sphere of drama. Ned Bliss Allen, believing that Dryden's
comedies have never received their due proportion of the critical
study devoted to their author and suspecting errors and omis-
sions in the comments of previous critics, has attempted to
remedy these shortcomings in his study of the sources of the
comedies. 5 He has investigated, as well as the unmixed come-
dies, the comic plots of the tragi-comedies. He does not claim

5 The Sources of John Dryden's Comedies, by Ned Bliss Allen. Ann
Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press, pp.xvii+298. $3.00.

270 THE RESTORATION

very great ability for Dryden as a comic dramatist, nor any
consistent development. Dryden's one constant principle was
to please the changing tastes of his audiences, and to do this with
as little exercise of originality as possible. c It is probably safe to
say that in his comedies Dryden never created what he could
borrow/ In tracing these borrowings Allen follows up the clues
provided by Langbaine in his Account of the English Dramatic
Poets (1691), his justification being that this has not previously
been done at all adequately and that in consequence Dryden has
been given credit for more originality than he possessed. On the
comedies for which Langbaine or subsequent critics have failed
to detect sources Allen has little new to say not, however,
because he believes their plots to be original. Although a great
deal of his volume is occupied by the discussion of detailed
parallels of phrasing and incident, he also indicates Dryden's
debts to the spirit and dramatic method of his predecessors and
contemporaries. In appendixes the sources of the serious plots
of The Maiden Queen and Marriage a la Mode and the indebted-
ness of Amphitryon to Plautus and Moliere are dealt with. The
suggestion is also made that Woodall, in Mr. Limberham, is a
satirical portrait of Rochester.

An interesting article by P. S. Havens on Dryden's 'Tagged'
Version of 'Paradise Lost* 6 throws new light on Dryden's pur-
pose in composing The State of Innocence and Fall of Man. This
was, Havens argues, to test his theory that c an heroic play ought
to be an imitation, in little, of an heroic poem'. The experi-
ment was for his private instruction, and publication was forced
upon him only when garbled versions got abroad. The method
of his adaptation of Milton's epic to dramatic requirements is
carefully studied. In Author's Changes in Dryden's 'Conquest of
Granada', Part I (MJjN., June) George H. Nettleton calls
attention to four significant alterations in the text of the second
quarto of 1673, and attributes them to Dryden, who normally
did not revise his plays for fresh editions. In Massinger and
Dryden (E.L.H., Nov.) Charles E. Ward submits that Dryden's
Tyrannic Love, or The Rcn/al Martyr was influenced by
Massinger's The Virgin Martyr.

6 In Essays in Dramatic Literature: The Parrott Presentation Volume
(see pp. 184-5).

THE BESTORATION 271

Dryden's non-dramatic work receives relatively little atten-
tion except in two valuable articles by Eoswell G. Ham. In
Dryden as Historiographer -Royal: The Authorship of 'His Majes-
ties Declaration Defended', 1681 (R.E.S., July) Ham deduces,
from the practice of James Howell, Dryden's predecessor in
the office, the type of publication that might be expected
from the historiographer-royal, and names certain of Dryden's
authentic works in verse and prose which may be regarded as
arising from his sense of an historiographer's duty. Ham then
adduces evidence for Dryden's labours, in his official capacity,
on an unpublished narrative of James II's early years, and
proceeds to the most important section of his paper, a persua-
sive exposition of the external and internal evidence in favour
of the probability of Dryden's authorship of the anonymously
published pamphlet, His Majesties Declaration Defended. In
Dryden* s Dedication for ( The Music of the Prophetesse', 1691
(P.M.L.A,, Dec.) he prints from a manuscript in, as he be-
lieves, Dryden's autograph, a dedication published as PurcelTs,
and suggests that Dryden was its author. A comparison of
the manuscript and the printed versions, reinforced by the
citation of parallels with Dryden's other writings, enables
Ham to throw interesting light on the author's methods of
composition.

G. M. Turnell's Dryden and the Religious Elements in the
Classical Tradition (Eng. Stud., Aug.) is primarily concerned
with Dryden's attitude towards authority in religion and litera-
ture. Edward G. Fletcher quotes A Dryden Anecdote relating to
Buckingham's supposed treatment of Dryden for portraying
him as Zimri, the source being Defoe's Review, 17 May 1712
(M.L.N., June). Coleman 0. Parsons prints Dryden's Letter of
Attorney, 1680, whereby he appointed George Ward to collect for
him the payments due on his pensions (ibid., June). In When
did Dryden write 'Mac FlecJcnoe*? Some Additional Notes
(R.E.S., Jan.) Harold Brooks argues in favour of 1678, quoting
parallels in Rochester's Farewell and in Oldham's satires, and
showing reason why Oldham's dating of Ms transcript of Mac
Flecknoe in 1678 should carry weight in fixing this as the year
of composition.

272 THE RESTORATION

John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester, is the subject of two sub-
stantial biographies. Charles Williams 7 presents, with humour
and a measure of detachment, a convincing picture of this
explosive personality, whose brief life of intensive devotion to
sense and sensuality ended with an exemplary death-bed con-
version. Williams claims for hi a consistent vein of serious-
ness, and tends to represent his licentious and sometimes brutal
escapades (most of which are amusingly described) as not the
thoughtless indulgences of a debauchee, but the deliberate con-
duct of a Hobbist experimenting in sensation. At other times
Rochester's inquiring mind endeavoured to test by experiment
the possible existence of an after life, but the lack of positive
results merely confirmed him in the material enjoyment of the
fleeting moments of the present one. When the physical in-
capacity resulting from over-indulgence robbed this of its
charms and sensation was found to be deceptive, Rochester
began serious reading, turned his mind to the duties of his station,
and began those conversations with Bumet which led Mm to
decide to reform. Isaiah liii, read to him during his last sickness
by his chaplain, effected the complete conversion for which
Burnet had prepared the way. The ecstasy of religious fervour
which marked his last days Williams describes fairly but with-
out enthusiasm, and he regrets the penitent's over-zealous des-
truction of some of the racier writings of his unregenerate youth.

Vivian de Sola Pinto is a more fervent admirer of Rochester
as poet and philosopher than is Williams, and the inspiring
motive of his volume 8 is to establish Rochester in the role of
serious poet and thinker. This occasions a change of emphasis
in dealing with parts of the biographical material which the two
authors have in common. Pinto, too, gives more detail in his
interesting narrative, particularly on the topic of Rochester's
youthful foreign tour under the tutelage of Sir Andrew Balfour
although, as he admits in a note, it is not absolutely certain
that Balfour's Letters (1700), from which he reconstructs the
itinerary, describe the journey with Rochester. Pinto reads into
the correspondence between Rochester and his wife a far more

7 Rochester, by Charles Williams. Arthur Barker, pp. 274. 105. net.

8 Rochester: Porte-ofo of a Restoration Poet, by Vivian de Sola Pinto.
John Lane. pp. xxii+294. Ss. 6d. net.

THE RESTORATION 273

tender relationship than Williams admits, and he suggests that
some of Rochester's best poems were written to her, Rochester's
writings are generously quoted by Pinto, with the result that
his book combines with its biographical interest the advantages
of an anthology. Some modernization of the punctuation of the
poems quoted from manuscript would, however, have assisted
the reader. The tone of the literary criticism is determined by
Pinto's conviction of Rochester's poetic and intellectual great-
ness, and his enthusiastic pleading, even though it does not
always compel agreement, should do much to establish Rochester
not merely as a love poet of occasional genius and a vigorous
satirist, but also as a significant constructive thinker in verse.
Little mention is made of Rochester's erotic poetry, on which
other critics have perhaps laid more than sufficient emphasis.
Pinto favours Rochester again in his tendency to view his whole
career in the light of his spectacular conversion ('That experi-
ence is the culmination of his career, and all this poetry must
be read in the light of it', p. 257). Nevertheless, one of the
most valuable features of his volume is his study of Rochester's
reaction from his first intellectual love, the philosophy of
Hobbes, to the sceptical deism of his friend Charles Blount (of
whose three letters to 'Strephon' or Rochester, Pinto is the first
to make use), and then, after his conversations with Burnet, to
the full acceptance of revealed Christianity in his last days.

A briefer exposition of some of the critical opinions noted
above will be found in Pinto's The Poetry of John Wilmot, Earl
of Rochester, 9 not noticed last year. In Attributions to Rochester
(T.L.S., May 9) Harold Brooks notes the source of f The
Commons' Petition 3 and shows that 'Upon the Author of the
Play calTd Sodom' was written by Oldham, not Rochester.
C. H. Wilkinson's Lord Rochester (ibid., July 11) deals with
poems in The Triumph of Wit, 1688.

The only other articles concerned with poetry relate to the
canon of Dorset's writings. In Dorset's Poem 'On the Young
Statesmen' (ibid., April 4) Brice Harris, after rejecting the possi-
bilities that Dryden, Rochester, or Buckingham was the author
of the piece, submits evidence for ascribing it to Dorset. R. G.

9 In Essays by Divers Hands, ed. by W. B. Maxwell. Transactions of
the Royal Society of Literature. Vol. xiii. O.U.P. 1934. 7$.

2762.16

274 THE KESTOBATION

Howarth notes, from manuscript sources. Some Additions to the
Poems of Lord Dorset (M.L.N., Nov.), in amplification of Helen
A. Bagley's Checklist (see The Tear's Work, siii. 235).

Among the prose writers Pepys commands tlie major share of
attention, and Pepysians will specially welcome Samuel Pepys:
The Tears of Peril, 10 the second of the three volumes in which
Arthur Bryant's biography will be completed. The first volume
brought the story of Pepys's life down to the close of the Diary
(see The Tear's Work, xiv. 271-3) ; the present -volume carries it
on until the eve of the Tangier voyage in 1683 ; and the final
volume will deal with Pepys as 'Saviour of the Navy'. Bryant
again shows notable skill and judgement in handling the mass
of material which he has accumulated from published and
manuscript sources. An introductory chapter neatly depicts
the political situation in the mid-Restoration period. Pepys, in
spite of his lowly origin, c was now at the age of thirty-seven the
recognized driving force of the Navy Office, Treasurer of Tan-
gier, and a man of great influence and authority'. But authority
spelt danger, and an admirable character sketch enables us to
appreciate the qualities which enabled him to face undauntedly
the political attacks upon himself and his colleagues which loom
so large in the troubled years covered by this volume. Pepys's
administrative genius, sorely tested during the Third Dutch
War, was given full scope by his elevation in 1673 to the post of
Secretary to the Office of the Lord High Admiral, an appoint-
ment which 'ultimately produced results which affected not
England alone, but the whole world', for Pepys was to lay the
administrative foundation of the modern navy. In the same
year he entered Parliament, where his enemies, seizing every
opportunity to attack him on public and religious grounds,
found Mm a most redoubtable fighter. In spite of all discourage-
ments, he steadily pursued his wise policy of reforming and
developing the navy. Then came the disaster of the Popish Plot,
and Pepys, on account of his long association with the Duke of
York in admiralty affairs, was made a principal object of Whig
attack in Parliament. He was committed to the Tower, and,

10 Sanwel Pepys: The Tears of Peril, by Arthur Bryant. C.TJ.P. pp.
xv+466. 12#. 6d

THE RESTORATION 275

though, the long prosecution for treason finally petered out, his
enemies succeeded in ejecting him from office. Pepys was now
left to his private devices until, in 1683, the king recalled him to
public service for the purpose of the Tangier Voyage. Packed
as the whole of this attractive book is with fresh information,
Bryant nowhere throws more valuable light on the age and the
man than in his detailed tracing of Pepys's vicissitudes under
the ruthless intrigues of the Whigs in the time of the Plot. In
an appendix he publishes for the first time Pepys's account of
'The Present IU State of my Health', 7 Nov. 1677.

Edwin Chappell has substantially increased his contributions
to Pepysian studies by his edition of The Tangier Papers. n Dis-
satisfied with Smith's original edition of The Tangier Journal
(1841), Chappell has transcribed the shorthand afresh and col-
lated his version with one made independently by W. Matthews.
To the Journal he has added a mass of miscellaneous docu-
ments relating to the expedition, written by various hands and
of purely historical interest, and Pepys's 'Notes General of the
Navy 5 , which occupy half the volume. These show Pepys's
zeal in gathering information on any and every aspect of naval
life and organization. ChappelTs editorial apparatus includes
an introductory sketch of the history of Tangier as an English
possession and of Pepys's share in Dartmouth's expedition for
its abandonment, some brief biographical notes on the persons
mentioned in Pepys's narrative, and a useful index.

Clara Marburg's Mr. Pepys and Mr. Evelyn 1 * is a study of the
'publick employment' and 'private enjoyment' of these two
men from the time of Pepys's first mention of Evelyn in his
Diary, in 1665, until his death nearly forty years later. Though
they were as unlike in personality and ability as they well could
be, their respect for each other's qualities ripened into an un-
interrupted friendship that seems to have given them both very

11 The Tangier Papers of Samuel Pepys, transcribed, edited, and col-
lated -with the transcription of Mr. W. Matthews, by Edwin Chappell.
(Publications of the Navy Records Society, vol. Ixxiii.) pp. xlix+376.
25s. 6cZ.

12 Mr. Pepys and Mr. Evelyn, by Clara Marburg. Pennsylvania Univ.
Press and O.U.P. pp. xi+156. 9s.

276 THE RESTORATION

real pleasure and consolation, especially in their later years.
Mss Marburg's story makes attractive reading, but the real
purpose of her book is to print for the first time thirty -seven
letters between Pepys and Evelyn which she has collected from
the manuscripts of the Public Record Office, the British Museum,
the Pepysian Library, and a few other sources. Ten are by
Pepys and the rest, including the longest, by Evelyn. Most are
concerned with their business relations in the matter of the care
of the sick and wounded, but the longest arise from their private
interests (e.g. Evelyn's letter in which, on the eve of Pepys's
trip to France in 1669, he gives detailed advice as to the sights
which Pepys should on no account miss, and the 'imethodicall
Trifle' of pamphlet size in which he answers Pepys's abstruse
inquiries of 7 July 1680 relating to naval history). Miss Mar-
burg prints all of these letters in full in an appendix, while other
appendixes give 'finding lists 5 of unlocated or inaccessible
manuscript letters and of printed letters. Certain errors in these
lists are pointed out in a review in T.L.S. (Dec. 7).

In Mr. Pepys upon the State of Christ-Hospital 1 * Rudolf Kirk
gives the history of Pepys's association with Christ's Hospital
during the last thirty years of his life. His principal new sources
of information are Pepys's voluminous manuscript 'Collection
of Matters relating to Christ's Hospital', covering the years
1673-84, and the minute-books of the school. Pepys's interest
as a governor was concentrated on the Mathematical School
which Charles II established at the hospital on 19 August 1673
for the instruction of forty poor boys in "the art of navigation
and the whole science of arithmetic'. These boys were designed
to become navigating officers in the navy, which accounts for
the devotion with which Pepys endeavoured to safeguard their
interests. But even he was for a long period (1684-92) reduced
to apathy by the corruption, mismanagement, and inefficiency
of the school. When he was persuaded once more to resume his
activities as a governor, he made valiant efforts towards its
reform, only to find that the one way to get any attention paid
to the elaborate Report which he drew up was to go over the

ia Mr. Pepys upon the, State of Christ-Hospital, by Rudolf Kirk.
Pennsylvania Univ. Press and O.TJ.P. pp. xi-j- 65+ facsimiles. 9s.

THE RESTORATION 277

heads of the president and other governors and appeal directly
to the Lord Mayor and Court of Aldermen. This he did in a
series of letters printed at his own expense and circulated pri-
vately. In an appendix Kirk prints these in facsimile from a set
in the Bodleian Library ; only two other sets, of which one is
imperfect, are known to exist. Pepys did not live to see his
reforms accomplished, but his strenuous efforts on behalf of the
school, in spite of many other calls on his time and of failing
health, confirm the impression of Pepys as the devoted servant
of the public good which Bryant has emphasized.

In Samuel Pepys and his Link with the Huguenots (Proceedings
of the Huguenot Society of London, voL xv, no. 2) W. H. Manchee
suggests the possibility that Eepys belonged to a Huguenot
family. Manchee's researches into contemporary records, parti-
cularly those of the Huguenot churches in London and Canter-
bury, enable him to throw light on Pepys's circle of friends and
relations, which certainly contains a large Huguenot element.
Edwin Chappell, in Pepys and the Huguenots, corrects two state-
ments in Manchee's paper (N. and Q., Nov. 2), and in Pepysiana
(T.L.S., March 14) he corrects other statements appearing in
The Times on 11 and 25 February. In Samuel Pepys and Spain
(Neophilologus, Jan.) W. Matthews illustrates the views on
Spain and its customs which Pepys recorded during his visit at
the close of his Tangier labours, 1683. Pepys's comments are
here for the first time published from Matthews's own transcrip-
tion of Bodleian MS. Rawlinson c. 859. The same writer, in
Pepys's Transcribers (J.E.G.P., April), discusses the successive
transcriptions of Pepys's shorthand from Pepys's own versions
of Charles II's escape from Worcester until the present day. John
Smith is shown to have worked 'with astounding care and skill',
only to have his excellent transcription of the Diary mangled
and corrupted by Braybrooke. Mynors Bright merely emended
and expanded the text of Braybrooke's 1854 edition. Chappell's
Shorthand Letters of Samuel Pepys, 1933 (see The Year's Work,
xiv, 273) is given 'the distinction of being the only scholarly
Pepysian transcription yet printed'. As the above notes will
have shown, The^Tangier Papers must now share this distinc-
tion, and Matthews's own name must be added to Chappell's in
connexion with it.

278 THE RESTORATION

An interesting addition to the corpus of Restoration diaries is
that of Robert Hooke, now edited for the first time by Henry W.
Robinson and Walter Adams from the manuscript preserved in
the Guildhall Library. 14 Robert Hooke, whose life (1635-1703)
is admirably sketched in the introduction, was a member of that
group of scientists who regularly foregathered in private at
Oxford in the later 1650's and who, after the Restoration,
formed the nucleus of the Royal Society. Hooke 3 s genius in
conducting experiments and in devising necessary apparatus
proved invaluable first to Robert Boyle and later to the Royal
Society, whose Curator of Experiments he was from 1662 until
his death. In this capacity he * did most to shape the form of the
new Society and to maintain its active existence. ... It is
scarcely an exaggeration to say that he was, historically, the
creator of the Royal Society' (p. xx). Hooke was made a
Fellow in 1663 and Secretary in 1677. Other honours included
his appointment as one of the City of London surveyors for the
rebuilding of the capital after the Great Kre, and several im-
portant buildings remain to testify to his architectural skill. As
a scientist he all but anticipated Newton's theory of gravitation,
he is the recognized pioneer of the combustion theory, he in-
vented the spring balance in watches, made improvements in
the microscope, telescope, and air-pump, established freezing-
point as zero in the thermometric scale, and made various con-
tributions to astronomy and botany.

The Diary covers the years 1672-80, apparently one of the
most active periods of Hooke's busy life. The entries take the
form of brief daily notes and jottings, sometimes on events of
national interest but mainly on his private activities, his visits,
his opinions of his acquaintances and colleagues, his labours, his
loans and purchases, his meals (the editors have provided a list
of the numerous taverns and coffee-houses mentioned by
Hooke, and have, where possible, located them), his physical
ailments and the strange cures attempted, and his not infre-
quent Pepysian lapses from the path of virtue. These memo-

14 The Diary of Robert Hooke, M.A., M.D., F.RJS., 1672-1680, tran-
scribed . . . and ed. by Henry W. Robinson and Walter Adams, with a
Foreword by Sir Frederick Gtowland Hopkins. Taylor and Francis, pp.
xxviii+527. 25s.

THE RESTORATION 279

randa being designed exclusively for his own use, he has no call
to be other than frank in his confessions and economical in his
expression. The question of style does not arise, for there is
probably not a single 'literary' or grammatically complete
sentence in the whole Diary ; but for the light which it throws on
an interesting personality and his times it is certainly attractive,
and the editors, by so competently executing the difficult task
of transcription and editing, have performed a valuable service
both to scientists and laymen.

Hooke and his Diary are the theme of an appreciative leading
article in T.L.S. (July 18).

Arthur Bryant has edited a representative selection of Charles
ITs letters, speeches, and declarations, covering the period
c. 1639-84:. 15 The years before the Restoration are richest in
personal letters ; thereafter much of the royal correspondence
was conducted by Secretaries of State, and the hand of Charles's
ministers is also perceptible in his speeches and declarations.
Bryant claims for Charles 'the quality of literary personality'
and a high degree of political skill. The editorial links between
the selections bridge the occasional gaps and complete the pic-
ture of Charles's chequered career.

Students of English and continental thought in the later
seventeenth and early eighteenth century will welcome with
gratitude Paul Hazard's La Crise de la Conscience europeenne
(1680-1715). 16 Hazard's purpose is to explore the causes, diag-
nose the symptoms, and follow the progress of the intellectual
upheaval which marked the transition from the rule of authority
to the rule of reason. His Europe is an intellectual rather than
a geographical unit, comprising those peoples united and dis-
tinguished by insatiable mental activity, curiosity, and idealism;
it is c une pensee qui ne se contente jamais'. Spinoza, Male-
branche, Locke, Leibniz, and Bayle are but a few of its spokes-
men discussed by Hazard. It is, indeed, impracticable to indi-

15 The Letters, Speeches, and Declarations of King Charles II, ed. by
Arthur Bryant. CasselL pp. xii+354. 10$. 6tf.

16 La Crise de la Conscience europienne, par Paul Hazard. Paris:
Boivin. Tomes I and IE, 60 fr. pp. viii+326+316. Tome HI, 'Notes
etB<Sf<rences' (sold separately), 20 fr. pp. 160.

280 THE RESTORATION

cate adequately here the wide range of his scholarship to this
the volume of 'Notes et References' is an indisputable testimony
or the variety of the aspects which he chooses to illustrate
this intellectual revolution. One can only note, first, his tributes
to the important part played by English philosophers, particu-
larly Locke (the significance and influence of whose Essay are
subtly analysed), the deists and free-thinkers, and, secondly,
his stimulating remarks (notably in Part IV: Les Valeurs ima-
ginatives et sensibles') on the importance of certain new
departures in English literature of this period as viewed against
the general European background. Hazard carries his learning
easily, and expounds Ms complex theme with unflagging
lucidity and charm.

Two articles which touch upon Hazard's field are Frederick
J. E. Woodbridge's Locke's Essay ^ a discussion of the problem
of experience and nature as defined by Locke; and, in the
same volume, Sterling P. Lamprecht's The Bole of Descartes
in Seventeenth-Century England, where the extent to which
Descartes was known to, and influential upon, English writers
of 1640-1700 is carefully investigated. The relation of Locke's
ideas to those of Descartes is explored at some length.

There remain for notice several miscellaneous articles on the
prose of the period. Daniel Gibson, Jnr., in On the Genesis of
'Pilgrim's Progress' (Mod. Phil., May), indicates in Bunyan's
earlier writings certain situations, characters, and ideas that
reappear in Pilgrim's Progress. 0. M. Webster's The Satiric
Background of the Attack on the Puritans in Swifts 'A Tale of a
Tub * (P.M.L^A., March) presents a bibliography of non-dramatic
satires on Puritans from 1621 to 1700. Benjamin Boyce's
A Mestoration 'Improvement 3 of Thomas Dekker (Jf.JD.JV., Nov.)
notes that the anonymous prose pamphlet, Poor Robin's Visions
(1677), is an adaptation of Dekker's News from Hell. Clarence
D. Thorpe's article, Two Augustans Gross the Alps: Dennis and
Addison on Mountain Scenery (S. in Ph., July), may be noted
here for its account of Dennis's travels in the Alps in 1688. The

17 In Studies in the History of Ideas, ed. by the Department of Philo-
sophy of Columbia University, vol. iii. Columbia Univ. and O.U. Presses,

THE RESTORATION 281

letter in which Dennis describes his experiences reveals his
almost 'romantic' appreciation of the sublimity of mountain
scenery. Some aspects of later seventeenth-century pronuncia-
tion are touched upon in Arvid Gabrielson's Elisha Coles's
'Syncrisis* (1675) as a Source of Information on Seventeenth-
Century English (Eng. Stud., April) and in W. Matthews ? s long
and carefully documented study of Sailors 9 Pronunciation in the
Second Half of the Seventeenth Century (Anglia, April).

XI

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
By EDITH J. MOBLEY

THE Clarendon Press has issued in the current year several
volumes of letters which are outstanding contributions to know-
ledge of eighteenth-century literature. Of first-rate importance
are The Letters of Jonathan Swift to Charles Ford, 1 edited by
David Nichol Smith. These cast new light on the friendship
between the two men and form a valuable supplement to Elling-
ton Ball's great edition of Swift's Correspondence. In his Intro-
duction Mchol Smith summarizes the history of the fifty-one
letters of Swift, now for the first time published in their entirety
with the sole exception of one which it has not been possible
to trace, but which is described in an 1896 sale-catalogue. The
eighteen letters of Ford have been previously printed, and of
eight of these the autographs have disappeared, but 'altogether
sixty of the letters of Swift and Ford are now printed in this
volume from the originals'. The correspondence begins in
November 1708 with a letter from Swift and ends with one
from Ford, dated 22 November 1737, so that it covers the
time of Swift's greatest political activity, and is especially
prolific in 1714, the year of the Tory downfall and of his final
retirement to Ireland. The dates of the composition (1721-5)
and completion of Gulliver's Travels (1725) are conclusively
proved ; the very intimate relationship between the two corre-
spondents is revealed and likewise Swift's part in securing for
his friend the editorship of the London Gazette, 'the prettiest
employment in England of its bigness'. The editor mentions
without emphasis that there is 'much that has to be
explained' if the reader is to benefit to the utmost by the
'careless intimacy' of the letters. 'Their distinction is that,
better than any series of letters to any other friend, they give
us Swift in undress. We know him the better for seeing him
in undress.' This summary criticism gives the measure of the

1 The Letters of Jonathan Swift to Charles Ford, ed. by David Nichol
Smith. O.U.P. pp. xlvii+260. 15*.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 283

reader's indebtedness for the way in which the letters are
introduced, presented, and annotated, as well as for the publica-
tion itself. This contains, in addition to the correspondence,
six of Swift's poems which Ford possessed in manuscript, two
of them in Swift's autograph: all six differ considerably from
the versions hitherto printed. Finally, there is an appendix
consisting of letters to Ford from Gay, Pope and Parnell,
Bolingbroke and the Duchess of Ormond. No student of the
reign of Queen Anne, no reader of Swift, can afford to neglect
the volume.

'The present edition contains two hundred and twenty-two
letters attributable to Sterne, besides one (No. 18) which bears
his signature. Of these, ten are now printed for the first time.
. . Four letters purporting to be his . . . and five from corre-
spondents complete the body of the work. Forty letters in the
Appendix, of which nine are hitherto unpublished, relate to
Sterne or to ... his family.' This bare statement of fact, sup-
plemented by a list of omissions of f dubious' letters, will not
conceal from the wary the immense amount of work which
must lie behind the new and authoritative edition of The Letters
of Sterne 2 by L. P. Curtis, who has devoted ten years to the
compilation of his book. The difficulty of collection of the letters
is, in the case of Sterne, outweighed by the difficulty of deter-
mining what to reject as spurious, and c a detailed study of these
suspicious letters ' has resulted in the omission of forty-seven,
'published between 1775 and 1804 and declared by their anony-
mous editor ... to be the work of Sterne'. 'It is more likely',
according to Curtis, 'that they are forgeries by William Combe'
whose statements are always suspect unless corroborated by
external evidence, since, as Fraser told Crabb Robinson (who
faithfully recorded the remark in cipher), 'Mr. Combe always
lies '. For the same reason, Miss Shaw's Second Journal to Eliza
(1929) is not even mentioned, though the present writer must
confess to have accepted it at its face-value when it was first
published. However, Curtis does not ask his readers to accept
his estimate of Combe's trustworthiness without giving them

2 Letters of Laurence Sterne, ed. by Lewis Perry Curtis. O.U.P. pp.
xxxiv+496. 305.

284 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

an opportunity to judge for themselves. He prints three of the
letters said to be written by Sterne to Combe, one of which is
certainly authentic since it is in Sterne's letter book. A second
refers to a supposed dispute about a sermon he is known to have
preached; the third (11 June 1765) Curtis thinks 'may be
genuine', and includes, except the last paragraph, which he
believes to be a forgery. He adds a significant note to one mis-
statement of fact: "There is ... the possibility that Combe
may have fabricated this passage and been ignorant of the
date of Mr. Vesey 's death. ' One may add, judged by the style
of the whole, that it is possible the entire letter is a fabrication
by Combe.

Nor is Sterne himself above all kinds of petty deceit, instances
of which are duly noted by his editor. One of the commonest
tricks is to make use of a telling passage in a letter to one corre-
spondent by refurbishing or exactly reproducing it for the
delectation of another. Sterne does this even with the most
intimate expressions of feeling, and the resulting impression of
insincerity is unavoidable. It demands a great deal of enthusi-
asm for Sterne if we are to believe in c the ultimate sincerity of
his insistence upon spontaneous creation ? which, in his editor's
opinion, c can hardly be questioned \

Of the editor's own enthusiasm there can be no doubt. It is
shown not only in the sifting of the letters and in the laborious
annotation of the references contained in them, including identi-
fication of the persons mentioned or alluded to by dashes and
initials, but also in the valuable commentary by which he casts
light on the social background of Sterne's life. Curtis applies to
his own work the words of Boswell: 'I cannot allow any frag-
ment whatever that floats in my memory concerning the great
subject of this work to be lost. . . . Every little spark adds
something to the general blaze/ Never did an editor better
substantiate such a claim.

The Correspondence of Thomas Gray* edited by the late Paget
Toynbee and Leonard Whibley, comes as a worthy supplement

3 Correspondence of Thomas Gray, ed. by the late Paget Toynbee and
Leonard Whibley. O.U.P. 3 vols. (1734-55) pp. lx+454; (1756-65)
pp. xxxvi+455-910; (1766-71) pp. xxxiv+911-1360. 63s.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 285

to the chronology of the life and the essay by Roger Martin
reviewed in the last volume of The Year's Work (pp. 276-8).
At long last justice has been done to the poet who has suffered
more than most from the shortcomings of his editors, and there
is no longer any excuse for misunderstanding or error. Between
them, Paget Toynbee and Whibley have collected 130 letters
more than were published by Tovey, and of the 500 included
in the present, edition nearly three-quarters are printed from
the original texts. C A consistent effort has been made to fix
the correct dates of the letters. Many dates, hitherto accepted,
have been corrected, and many letters not dated before have
had their dates determined/ It is not difficult to guess the
amount of labour represented by this statement, especially when
it is remembered that 'the dates of some sixty letters in all
have been altered or more closely defined 5 . Further: "Notes
are inserted in the text, describing letters known to have been
written by Gray at an approximately certain date, of which
mention is made in extant letters or in the letters of his corre-
spondents. ' The volumes also include 86 letters to Gray from
Walpole, Mason, Mcholls, and others ; in each volume there is an
invaluable Complete List of Letters and Chronological Table ;
there are numerous illustrations portraits, facsimiles, and
maps and, in volume three, no fewer than 26 Appendices dealing
with various biographical matters, and 7 Genealogical Tables.
Throughout, the text is illuminated by full notes 'on the men
or things that interested Gray 3 a commentary of absorbing
interest to the reader and, finally, the work concludes with
five separate indices which run to forty-five pages in all. The
editors' work is everything that sound scholarship and discern-
ment can produce.

A complete edition of The Drapier's Letters 4 " has been pro-
duced by Herbert Davis. The Introduction is divided into three
parts, Historical, Bibliographical and Textual, and Collations,
which deal exhaustively with these topics. Davis gives con-
vincing reasons for his decision to reprint the five letters from

4 The Drapier's Letters to the People of Ireland against receiving Wood's
Halfpence, by Jonathan Swift, ed. by Herbert Davis. O.U.P. pp. xcv+
400. 21$.

286 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

the Harding text of 1724 with changes only of obvious misprints.
f At the same time all the important variants in the collected
editions of 1725, 1730, and 1735 are given at the foot of the
page, and all the notes which were added under Swift's super-
vision in 1735.' Letters vi and vii with An Account of Wood's
Execution are reprinted from Faulkner's edition of 1735, and
four appendices give accounts of Later Activities of the Drapier,
and descriptive lists of all the prose pamphlets and broadsides
concerned with the controversy, of all the verse connected with
it, and of the imitations of the Letters. In addition the Letters
are fully annotated and there are reproductions of the Portrait
of the Drapier, the Declarations against Wood's Coinage, and
the Title-pages of the First Five Letters, printed by John
Harding.

The volume thus contains the material necessary for study
of the whole controversy and one may legitimately apply to it
Swift's own words : "The work is done and there is no more need
of the Drapier. 5

In a sumptuous volume, which he entitles Pope's Own Mis-
cellany, 5 Norman Ault reprints a rare book of which only five
copies are known to exist and which, as he shows, first appeared
on 13 July 1717. Of this volume he proves Pope to have been
the editor, and, as the outcome of a detailed and apparently
incontrovertible examination, the author of no fewer than
thirty-seven anonymous poems containedinit. Ault 's arguments
cannot be adequately summarized. They are based for the main
part on internal evidence of style, mannerisms, phraseology, and
the like, but there are also various external reasons for many of
his attributions, e.g. references in Pope's correspondence with
Henry Cromwell to c juvenile love-verses 3 which have not pre-
viously been identified, Pope's later acknowledgement of four
of the poems, imitations of Cowley and Waller, and of an early
version of Solitude, &c. Ault's introduction is convincing and
must be read by all students of Pope. There seems no doubt
that the poems must be added to the canon of the poet's work,

5 Pope* a Own MisceUany, being a reprint of Poems on Several Occasions,
1717, containing new poems by Alexander Pope and Otfiers, ed. by Norman
Ault. Nonesuch Press, pp. 98 + 166. 22s. $d.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 287

and that though, in L. Her., October 1924, A. E. Case in some
measure anticipated Ault's discovery, this in no way detracts
from the value of what has now been for the first time fully
substantiated.

Fresh light is cast by the Miscellany on Pope and on various
of his contemporaries, notably Lady Winchilsea, seven of whose
poems are here 'reprinted for the first time', and the Duke of
Buckingham whose ' contributions include two pieces . . . which
seem never to have been reprinted since 1721 \ 'It is to Pope's
credit as editor that he gathered together in this collection a
far larger proportion of unpublished poems than is usuaEy
found in the miscellanies of his day. . . . For the earliest printed
texts of some eighty poems of the period, students will hence-
forth have to consult the pages of Pope's Own Miscellany. '

In a letter contributed by Ault to T.L.S. on 7 December he
supplements his introduction by 'material evidence 5 respecting
Pope's editorship. This consists of the discovery of the auto-
graph of one of Lady Winchilsea's poems with Pope's press
corrections in his own writing. Ault also gives further reasons
for ascribing the editorship of the so-called Lintofs Miscellany
to Pope, and a fresh reason for supposing him to be the
author of the short version of the poem called The Old Gentry
which was afterwards re-worked by Prior.

'The story of the failure of The Rivals* and its final triumph
is a familiar one. Exactly what Sheridan's part in it was,
however', has hitherto been a matter of conjecture. By the
discovery and publication of the original version of the play
as preserved in the Larpent MS., R. L. Purdy has been able to
piece out the story. The manuscript, now the property of the
Huntington Library, California, is an official copy of the play,
prepared for the Lord Chamberlain's licence, and bears the sign-
manual of his approval. Subsequently it passed into the hands
of Larpent, a later Examiner of Plays, and, together with the
manuscripts of several thousand other plays, was, by some
unexplained occurrence, put up for sale after his death. About
1832, eight large bundles of these manuscripts were purchased

6 The Rivals, ed. from the Larpent MS., by Bichard Little Purely.
OJJ.P. pp. lii+122. 21*.

288 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

by Collier, who specifically mentioned The Rivals as not being
among them. But Purely says that, in spite of Collier's untrust-
worthiness, "there is no ground at all for doubting the genuine-
ness of the manuscript of The Rivals', which he had probably
overlooked. Subsequently the collection was transferred to
Lord Ellesmere's library at Bridgewater House, and thence, in
1917, to the Huntington Library, California.

A comparison between the manuscript and the first published
version of The Rivals (1775) is facilitated in the volume under
review by their reproduction in parallel columns. It is obvious
that Sheridan made drastic changes, especially in the character
of Sir Lucius 'Trigger, who is transformed from an unscrupu-
lous fortune-hunter into an inoffensive gentleman who could
arouse no wrath among Irish patriots. The coarseness of Sir
Anthony is also much toned down, the whole of the dialogue is
considerably refined, and many of the malapropisms deleted or
improved. There are also structural alterations in the play, of
which some are important, some only slight. But all the changes
show that Sheridan knew how to profit by the attacks of his
critics, when these had any justification in fact. He was able
to transform the initial failure of the performance on 17 January
into a brilliant success, so that when the play was presented
for the second time, after a withdrawal of eleven days, it was
described as ' performing with universal applause 5 .

In a chapter on The Development of the Text, Purdy calls
attention to the fact that the first published edition, besides the
above-mentioned changes, also contains * copious additions' to
the manuscript version, and that these 'have, almost without
exception, no dramatic significance*. He suggests that these
passages probably belonged to the original version, a text that
preceded the Larpent MS., and that Sheridan rescued these
cancelled lines, most of which occur in the Julia-Faulkland
scenes, because he regretted the sacrifice of his rhetoric and
sentiment to the exigencies of stage performance. 'The pre-
vailing tone of the additions ... is elegant, lofty, sententious 3 :
the editor believes that they represent Sheridan's own prefer-
ences and that it is a mistake to think that the Julia-Faulkland
episode was a concession to the sentimental leanings of his
audience.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 289

Another point to be noted is that the third edition corrected,
of 1777, goes back in many instances to the text of the Larpent
MS., and Purdy thinks that it may be the version of the play
performed on 28 January 1775. His admirably edited volume
adds material of importance to the knowledge of Sheridan's
dramatic development.

In an introduction of some twenty pages to An Essay on the
External Use of Water ^ Claude E. Jones seeks to substantiate
his opening statement that "JSTo other English writer leaves to
posterity so clear a picture of contemporary medicine as does
Tobias George Smollett. . . . Through the fabric of Dr. Smol-
lett's work, the red thread of medicine is apparent in thumb-nail
sketches of medical men, in medical observations, in exploits
involving medical figures, and in satirical comments on the
state of healing at his time. ' Jones considers that Smollett is
"extremely important to the student of medical history ', chiefly
by reason of scattered pictures and comments throughout his
novels, but he shows knowledge of contemporary medicine as
well as of its practitioners. His Essay on the External Use of
Water is, however, his most considerable contribution to the
science. The text of the present edition is printed from a photo-
static copy of an edition in the Surgeon-General's Library.

Garman's edition of The Fable of the Bees 8 consists of a reprint
of Part I, omitting the Essay on Charity and Charity Schools and
the Vindication, and of the first Dialogue from Part II. It is
intended for the use of those who are unable to purchase the
standard edition of F. B. Kaye (The Year's Work, v. 202-4).
In his brief Introduction the present editor relates Mandeville
to The Freethinking Background of his time, and points out that
c his most solid contribution' to the history of thought 'is the
penetrating psychological insight which he applies throughout
the Fable' while 'The chief literary quality of his book ... is
the realistic, downright style with which his paradoxes are
clothed. '

7 An Essay on the External Use of Water, by Tobias Smollett, ed. by
Claude E. Jones. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press. $1.00.

8 The Fable of the Bees, by Bernard Mandeville, ed. by Douglas
Garman. Wishart, 1934. pp. vi+256. fo.

2762.16 T

290 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

John Beresford's single volume of Passages from Woodforde's
Diary of a Country Parson 9 will doubtless prove as welcome as
the five volumes of selections which were its forerunners. The
same competent editor is responsible for the choice of excerpts
and he is similarly guided by the desire to make the reader
acquainted with 'the ordinary life of ordinary men ', to * convey
the day-to-day atmosphere and the continuity of normal life 5
as shown in the diary between 1758, when it begins, until 1802
when it concludes, about two months before Woodforde's
death, on 1 January 1803.

J. G-. Bullocke's Tomlinson Papers, 10 published for the Navy
Records Society, is primarily of naval and historical significance.
But the Tomlinsons, father and son, were interesting people with
strong religious and political views and their papers, which
range in date from 1768 to 1836, reveal a great deal that is of
importance to all who wish for intimate knowledge of the
eighteenth century. Robert's Essay on Timber, for example, is
well worth reading, while the letters of both not only transport
us into the heart of the time but acquaint us with inside infor-
mation about naval happenings. They are also written in
admirable English by men to whom we are glad to have an
introduction, sea-dogs who, as Sir Sidney Smith said of Robert,
had all their lives 'dared to dare'.

In the year 1694 Beat Louis de Muralt, n a young Swiss lately
in the French service, decided to c faire cette chose ordinaire et
inutile . . . un tour en Angleterre '. He spent his time exclusively
in London but for visits to Sir William Temple, in Surrey, and
to the Duke of Somerset at Petworth, and his impressions of
the English are derived almost entirely from his knowledge of

9 Woodforde : Passages from the five Volumes of The Diary of a Country
Parson, selected and ed. by John Beresford. O.U.P. pp. xx+534.
10s. 6dL

10 The Tomlinson Papers selected from the Correspondence and Pamph-
lets of Captain Robert Tomlinson 9 E.N., and Vice-Admiral Nicholas Tom-
linson, ed. by J. G. Bullocke (Navy Records Society), pp. xxx+400,
25s. 6cL

11 Lettres sur Us Anglois et les Francois et sur les Voiages (1728), by
B. L. de Muralt, ed. by Charles Gould. Paris; Champion. 1933. pp. 384.
50 frs.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 291

town life. But ILLS letters about his experiences are exceptional
in that they for the first time describe English life and social
customs in detail, and attempt to estimate the English character
with sympathy and understanding. From the literary point of
view, the letter which is of most interest is that which deals with
the theatre, and especially with English comedy. Muralt's
account of the relations between English and French drama
shows real acumen and if we need not agree that Ben Jonson
errs by lack of moral purpose, that is not to deny the justice of
much of his criticism. Even 'English tragedy, he thought, had
possibilities', if only the dramatists would 'be simpler in theme
and style'. The Lettres sur les Francois and that sur les Voiages
followed the English letters a few years later and are in a sense
complementary to them.

Muralt's work was not published until 1725, and even then
against the will of the author, whose pietistic developments led
him to under- value these traveller's tales. When he discovered
that it was being widely read, he recast and revised the first
version, making considerable changes, especially in the French
letters, in which he introduced many moral generalizations.
'The 1728 edition is a weighty affair compared with its pre-
decessor. '

It is this edition which Charles Gould reprints, with an intro-
duction in which he gives the author's life and a valuable
account of the history of the text and of its contents and
influence. The notes are mainly concerned with illustrations of
points mentioned in the Letters and with contemporary criti-
cisms called forth by the book and its author. The publication,
the first in modern times, is welcome from many points of view,
and the editor is right in his conclusion that 'With the passing
of years [the Letters] have lost none of their charm and vitality'.

The diaries of Elizabeth Wynne and her sister, as far as they
appear in this volume, 12 are the childish records of experiences
in Switzerland and Austria during the troubled years of the
French Revolution. But though the writers were in contact
with many refugees, whom, as a class they disliked, and though

12 The Wynne Diaries, ed. by Anne Fremantle. Vol. i. 17S9-94.
O.U.P. pp. xvi-h376. 15s.

292 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

they described the hopes and fears of the emigres, on the whole
the journals scarcely seem to merit the careful editing and
annotation they have received. We are promised three more
volumes and it is possible that these will really serve as 'source-
book[s] of much interesting material in a period of excite-
ment' : it cannot be maintained that this is a description of the
present instalment, though it makes pleasant enough desultory
reading.

John Yeoman, 13 a Somersetshire farmer and potter, paid a
visit to his aunt at Brentford in the year 1774 and wrote down
a description of his London sight-seeing which appears to have
been very thorough-going. But many better contemporary
accounts are available, and this seems to be another example
of a diary which offers little to justify publication. Nor do we
think that Yearsley's Introduction and Notes add very much to
its interest.

G, E. VuUiamy has reduced the six tomes of Mrs. Delany's
Autobiography and Correspondence, edited by Lady Llanover in
1861-2, into a single, very readable volume. 34 The work is well
done, but not better, we think, than by R. Brimley Johnson in
1925 (The Year's Work, vL 241-2), so that from one point of
view the book is superfluous. But nothing that tends to keep
Mrs. Delany in the public eye can be looked upon as a work of
supererogation, since she is not merely a typical great lady, but
representative of that art of living which was the ideal of her
century. There is every reason why she should be remembered
as what Burke called her, *a truly great woman of fashion . . .
the woman of fashion of all ages', and also as an individual,
brilliant, charming, and, according to her latest panegyrist, able
'to make virtue supremely attractive 5 . The attraction was as
fully recognized by her contemporaries as it must be by all
those who are enabled to make her acquaintance in print.

Lester M. Beattie's John Arbufhnot, Mathematician and Sati-

13 The Dicury of the Visits of John Yeoman to London m the Years 1774
and 1777, ed. by Macleod Yearsley. Watts, 1934. pp. 55. 6s.

14 Aspasia: The Life and Letters of Mary OranviUe, Mrs. Delomy
(1700-1788), by C. E. Vulliamy. Geoffirey Bles. pp, xiv+290. 10*. 6d.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTUBY 293

rist 1 * is in the main a critical study of Arbuthnot's work rather
than a biography, and it deals in detail with both his satires
and his Works of Sober Intent, mathematical and medical,
adding a chapter on his general characteristics. A large section
of the book is devoted to an examination of the John Bull
pamphlets and to a discussion of Teerink's theory of Swift's
authorship (The Year's Work, vi. 220-1), which Beattie denies,
basing his ascription of The History of John Bull to Arbuthnot
on various grounds. He disproves the validity of Teerink's
supposed 'parallels of style ', and of his interpretation of certain
remarks in the Journal to Stella, and explains 'the incoherence
of John Bull' by 'hasty composition 3 . In Swift's writings,
however much he may digress, there is invariably 'positive use
of framework' and structural excellence. Even in the Tale of a
Tub the 'digressions are charted' and differ entirely from 'the
haphazard and purely pictorial digressions of John Bull. Swift
viewed his task as a whole. . . . Arbuthnot . . . did not have a
shaping hand for materials in the large. His mind was keenly
alive to the next thing, but not to the unity of all things. Hence
an organic development in John Bull is not to be sought. ? In
view of what was said in the notice of Teerink's study (op. cit.),
the present writer should add that she finds Beattie's arguments
convincing.

His analysis of Arbuthnot's character and of the nature of
his satire is equally the result of minute study of the man and
his writings, and the cumulative effect of the book is that it
has the authority derived from intimate knowledge of its sub-
ject. Arbuthnot 'had a respect for control. Hence there was a
steady infusion of thought, even into the most rollicking satire,
which ... in the end amounted to criticism. . . . Intellectual
conscience thus saved Arbuthnot's wit from expenditure in
frivolity.' 'He was released from any danger of emotional
fixity by the variety of his life. ... He knew the sanative value
of a normal existence among men. ' 'Arbuthnot's course was
not a mere attempt to ignore . . . troubles, but a facing of facts
in their relation to the rest of experience, a refusal to mistake
some trifling part for the pivotal scene of the drama. *

15 John Arbuthnot, Mathematician and Satirist, by Lester M. Beattie.
Harvard Univ. Press and OJJJP. pp.xvi+432. 16*.

294 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

Arbuthnot has found no such sympathetic interpretation
since Aitken's standard life, and that attempted no comparable
discussion of his 'intellectual and literary procedure 5 .

T.L.S, for 28 Feb. deyotes its leading article to a bi-centenary
account of John Arbuthnot, M.D., and his efforts "to assist in
the development of a normal society, qualified by clean health
to need no satirists, and even no fashionable physicians'.

A. L. Reade, in his preface to Johnsonian Gleanings, , 16 Part VII,
states that it 'is really only a kind of genealogical appendix to
Part VI ' but that e its contents are essential to the large scheme 5
on which he is working. He calls special attention to 'the
complicated interactions of kinship' upon Johnson's career and
to the novel 'map to illustrate his origins and family associations
as well as his life and movements down to 1740 \ There is also
a very full index of persons and places. If this is not a book to
read straight through, it is emphatically one for reference, and
it is compiled with meticulous care and industry.

S. (X Roberts has accomplished a difficult task. He has
written, in 142 small pages of large print, an account of Dr.
Johnson 17 which is unhackneyed and independent. Johnson,
the man of letters, comes in for as much attention as the per-
sonality and the talker, and it is not the least merit of this little
book that it insists on Johnson's 'fundamental conviction of the
need of authority* in religion, in politics, and in literature. His
'profound reverence for tradition and order' explains most of
Johnson's beliefs and prejudices. But the man is made up of
more than these and not even Boswell could understand every
side of him. 'He was not always the Sage. Fun, as well as wit,
flavoured his talk. Boswell is invariably apologetic on this
topic. ' The Johnson who is endeared to the English-speaking
race

*ia clearly neither the Lexicographer, nor the Rambler, nor the
Tory, but a personality which perhaps no biography, not even
BoswelFs, can wholly reveal . . . Johnson's friends . . . listened to

16 Johnsonian Gleanings. Part VII* The Jervis, Porter, and Other
Allied FamiMes, by Aleyn Lyell Reade. Privately printed for the author
by Ltmd, HiHxxphries. pp. vi-f 226. Subscription price: %!&+

17 Doctor Johnson, by S. C. Bobearts. Duckworth, pp. 142. 2#.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTUBY 295

him not merely because they enjoyed the readiness of his wit, but
because they respected the width of Ms learning, the clearness of

his judgment, and, above all, the fixity of Ms etMcal standards

The exploration of Johnson's mind is still worth making, and the
modern seeker after truth will not return from the voyage empty-
handed. *

With these words Roberts concludes the study, the whole of
which goes to prove their truth.

Stephen Gwynn's life of Oliver Goldsmith 18 has the merit of
being written with obvious enjoyment and sympathetic under-
standing. It makes no claim to discover new material or to
propound new theories, and it is probably least strong on the
critical side. At any rate it would be possible to question Gwynn's
off-hand dismissal of Goldsmith's claim to the possession of
penetrating critical faculty. To give only two examples : when
he wrote it was no small matter to object to 'disgusting solem-
nity of manner', nor to discover that Lyly's style is c a kind of
prodigy of neatness, clearness, and precision'. Nor, as we think,
is Goldsmith's contribution to drama, to verse, and to the essay
given sufficient weight, though here the author errs, if at all,
by under-statement or inadequate treatment not by what he
says but by what he omits. Yet he writes a biography which is
full of charm and interest, and in which. Ms Admiration for
Goldsmith is shown to be founded on knowledge, of what he
calls 'the essential man'. One could wish that it had not been
felt necessary to labour quite so often the contrast between
Johnson and Goldsmith: it is true that they differed in outlook,
in character, and in acMevement. But Gwynn Mmself quotes
Johnson's dictum that 'whether we take [Goldsmith] as poet
as a comick writer or as an Mstorian, he stands in the first
class ' ; he also tells us that c admiration and affection always
had the better' of resentment in Goldsmith's attitude towards
Johnson. The two men differed in many particulars but funda-
mentally they respected as well as loved one another and
none the less because each preserved his independence of mind.
A man so sensitive and so gauche in society as Goldsmith was

18 Oliver Goldsmith, by Stephen Gwynn. Thornton Butterworth.
pp. 288. 15s.

296 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTUEY

bound often to suffer from Johnson's overbearing manners, far
more, probably, than Johnson himself would have conceived
possible. Boswell has over-emphasized that aspect of their
intercourse. There was no need to lay fresh stress upon it.
This account of Goldsmith in its freshness and penetration
is notwithstanding perhaps the most attractive that has yet
appeared.

R. W. Ketton Cremer's small life of Thomas Gray 1 * suffices
to prove the writer's understanding of Ms subject. Gray is
interpreted with sympathy, and the legend that 'he never spoke
out' is disproved by reference to both Ms poetry and Ms letters.
Ketton Cremer had not the advantage of access to Martin's
researches on Gray (The Tear's Work, xv. 276-8) or to the new
edition of the letters described above (see pp. 284-5) in time to
profit adequately by the fresh material to be found in them, but
while for the most part he deals with no new facts, he treats
what was known freshly and with the obvious desire to arrive
at a true interpretation of the man and the poet. His book
takes precedence as the most trustworthy introduction to
Gray in the language.

S. Shellabarger's Lord Chesterfield^ is an attempt to portray
the author of the Letters as a perfect exponent of worldliness ;
a 'representative of the worldly tradition at its best', the man
is shown in relation to Ms philosophy of life and also to the
letters wMch have become its ' monumental expression ' . Shella-
barger claims that Chesterfield's life has never before been
depicted from tMs angle, wMch, nevertheless, alone permits it
to be seen in the proper focus. 'Therefore', the introduction
concludes, the present work seeks 'first of all to know more of
Chesterfield, the individual, the wit, politician, and pedagogue
of the eighteenth century, but in him we shall also study, under
the most favourable light, during its most illustrious period, a
certain imperishable human type. ... At times we shall be

19 Thomas Gray, by B. W. Ketton Cremer. Duckworth, pp. 136.
2*.

20 Lord Chesterfield, by Samuel Shellabarger. MacmiHaa, pp. xiv+
422. 15*.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTTJEY 297

led to inquire concerning the wisdom of Chesterfield and Ms
school, whether it is really wise. '

It may "be at once conceded that the author has succeeded
in his endeavour. His portrait of Chesterfield is convincing.
If it does not present a noble character, it shows a man no worse,
and in many respects more likeable, because more honest and
more consistent than his neighbours. Chesterfield preached
what he practised and what his world practised: nor are his
worldly maxims out of date. Spiritual experience, idealism,
irrational faith with such things he was not concerned, and
of their virtue he had no conception. His reputation has suffered
from his frank and forceful acceptance of a code which exalts
manners above morals, and immediate social success above
lasting truth. He has become the scapegoat of 'the universal
system of worldly standards and values . . . because he dared to
voice its tenets clearly instead of bowdlerizing them'.

It is fair to emphasize this aspect of Shellabarger's study, for
to it he returns again and again. But it would convey a wrong
impression were we to do so at the expense of the detailed
examination of Chesterfield's career and political activities,
and above all of the section which deals with Philip Stanhope
and the Letters. In his treatment of the latter Shellabarger is
at his best, and he uses the variations of tone and style in
masterly fashion as an indication that after all Chesterfield's
'silly, rational pose of paternal affection dependent on filial
merit' does not completely succeed in concealing 'the somewhat
pathetic glimpse of a fond solicitous human heart '. c The parent
of these closing letters . . . has suddenly grown much older, much
softer' and so he was to prove himself in the final shock of his
son's death and the discovery of his secret marriage. The book
has an adequate, though professedly incomplete, bibliography
and a satisfactory index.

In her biography of William Shenstone n Marjorie Williams
succeeds in conveying to her readers something of the charm
which she finds in the man and his writings, and this without
overstatement or exaggeration of his achievement. For the

21 William JShenstone: A Chapter in Eighteenth-Century Taste, by
Marjorie Williams. Birmingham: Cornish, pp. 152. 65.

298 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

first time a successful attempt is made in this little book to see
Shenstone in. Ms environment and to portray Ms manifold
interests in people, in literature, and in tMngs, while showing
Mm in relation to the age in wMch he lived. Miss Williams
emphasizes the importance of his letters wMch 'record the
passing moods of an eighteenth-century man of taste. . . . Yet
the matter friendsMp, virtue, the joys of country life, the latest
addition to the ferine ornee, the unsatisfactory life in cities
is of less importance than the manner . . . and few have crystal-
lized the vivid impression of the moment more truly than
William Shenstone. 3 'Undoubtedly Ms reputation should be
built up anew upon Ms Letters*, wMch are here 'accounted
among the best wMch the eighteenth century produced. 3 But
Ms critical essays, Ms Men and Manners, and his prose writings
generally merit much more praise than has usually been given
to them, while some of Ms nature-poetry possesses a lyrical
grace and sounds a personal note unusual in the verse of Ms
contemporaries. As he wrote in Ms Essay on Megy y if he * de-
scribes a rural landskip, or unfolds the train of sentiments it
inspired, he fairly drew Ms picture from the spot, and felt very
sensibly the affection he communicates ' no small merits at a
date when poets have been accused of not writing with their
eye on the object.

Gilbert Thomas, in Ms life of Cowper, 22 is mainly concerned
to portray Mm in relation to his time and, more particularly,
to the Evangelical Revival. In this attempt he arrives at con-
clusions wMch are likely to surprise those who are less ardent
supporters of that movement, as, for instance, that 'Blake gave
the most vital imaginative expression to the spirit behind the
Revival 3 ; or that while Cowper's "early association with Cal-
vinism must be lamented 3 because it c fostered dangerous habits
of introspection *, "in Methodism ... he found the most joyful
and vital influence of his life ', or that under Newton's influence
Cowper's own wdl-estaUished Calvinism diminished rather than
increased'. But unfortunately Cowper relied too much on Ma
reason and did not sufficiently trust his heart : had he been less

22 William Cowper and the Eighteenth Qentwry, by Gilbert Thomas.
Ivor Nicholson, pp. S95. 15s.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 299

rationalistic or had he ' known some good Arminian friend 3 in
Ms London days, his recurring 'fits of morbidity' might have
been avoided. 'At all events, after he definitely embraced
Evangelicalism, his madness returned only at long intervals.
... It is irrelevant to cite the comparatively settled gloom of
his declining years.' There was no connexion between his
insanity and his religious creed. With equal skill, Thomas proves
the ' comparative mildness ' of Newton's Calvinism ; his expres-
sions of its more violent sentiments 'represent merely the
formal voice, not of Newton alone, but of his age '. It may fairly
be objected that the six ' rabid sentiments' quoted by Mr.
Fausset as 'not exceptional 3 in Newton's writings would seem
to overstep the bounds of mere formality. The reader may
judge from the first of the two used by Thomas to illustrate
his point : ' We find depravity so deep-rooted in our nature, that,
like the leprous house, the whole fabric must be taken down
before we can be freed from its defilement. '

In short, this book, with all its merit, is a piece of special
pleading which is not likely to convince any but the converted
that Cowper's c merely habitual use of Calvinistic terminology 3
is less the expression than the resolution of his mental agony.
Most readers will continue to feel that The Castaway sounds
a note of despairing anguish and shows no sign 'that in the
depths of Cowper there was peace'.

No voice divine the storm allay'd,

No light propitious shone

When, snatch'd from all effectual aid,

We perish'd, each alone:

But I beneath a rougher sea,

And whelm'd in deeper gulphs than he.

This is the authentic note of despair not 'an antidote to
religious depression'.

As Arthur Skemp Memorial Lecturer at the University of
Bristol, Edmund Blunden took as his subject Edward Gibbon
and Ms Age 25 with the intention 'to find him in his devotional
character and to suggest that , . . his lay sermon has become the

28 Edward Gibbon and his Age, by Edmund Bltmden. Bristol: Arrow-
smith, pp. 38. Is. 6c2.

300 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTUEY

voice of our time 5 . On the way to this conclusion. Gibbon is
shown in his place among the c Quarto Historians 3 of his age,
and, in his autobiography, disclosing what Bltmden calls his
'workaday gospel', his 'broad theory of life and conduct'.

In his George Colman the Elder, M Eugene E. Page has com-
pleted a very useful task and thrown a good deal of light upon
the history of the theatre during the years 1760-90 at the same
time as he has written an account of the life and work of Colman
in all its aspects. As a result it is shown that his is a much
more important figure than has hitherto been supposed. The
nephew and ward of Pulteney, afterwards earl of Bath, Colman
was educated at Westminster and Christ Church and later at
Lincoln's Inn, where he was called to the Bar. But he gave up
both his legal career and his prospects of inheriting his uncle's
fortune in order to devote himself to the theatre, and it is
mainly to his work as manager and as dramatist that he owes
his place in literature, though he proved his competence as an
essayist and as editor of The Connoisseur while he was still an
undergraduate, and continued to contribute to periodical litera-
ture, notably in 1775 in the series of six essays entitled The
Gentleman, at intervals throughout his life. In an appendix,
Page gives a list of All Acted Plays Written or Altered by George
Colman, and the number and character of these show the influ-
ence he exerted in the revival of the Elizabethan and Jacobean
dramatists, Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Beaumont and Fletcher,
as well as the fact of his authorship of such comedies as The
Jealous Wife, and of his collaboration (with Garrick) in such
plays as The Clandestine Marriage. But it was above all as
manager that he contributed most to the history of the theatre,
not merely by producing both The Good Natur'd Man in 1768
and She Stoops to Conquer in 1773, but by his whole conduct of
the war of the theatres and by the plays he staged and the
actors and actresses he discovered and employed.

In the words of Page's epilogue :

4 A tendency to let one or two figures represent a period has

24 George Colman the Elder, Essayist, Dramatist, and Theatrical Mana-
ger, 1732-1794, by Eugene B. Page. Columbia Univ. Press and O.TJ.P.
pp. xii+334. 15*.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTUEY 301

obscured our record of men like Colman, who, in their own day,
were of real importance to literature. For an appreciation of the
life of the times, a biography of such a man as Colman may in
many ways present a better picture than the history of one great
enough to loom above his age. . . . Colman . . . participated in all
the varieties of literary and social activity of his day. His career
at school, at college, as a nobleman's protege, as essayist, pamph-
leteer, hack, poet, translator, dramatist, manager ; his friendships,
his quarrels, his plans, his schemes, and his failures, are in a great
many ways typical of his time. Through that busy and intimate
social and literary world moved not only Colman and men of his
rank, but such men as Johnson, Goldsmith, Sheridan, Garrick,
Wilkes, Churchill, Gray. ... In that incomparable fellowship of
the Club, "little Coley " was an active and ambitious participant,
certainly not unworthy of the company he kept. '

So to have presented him, without any loss of proportion, is to
have made a contribution to the knowledge of the eighteenth
century for which the writer deserves the thanks of his fellow
students.

Paul Staubert's study of Chatterton 25 is psychological, not
literary, in its scope. The writer summarizes his purpose in
the following sentences which sufficiently indicate his method:

c Zweck der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, . . . die Erscheinungsformen
des Lebens und Dichtens Chattertons auf die normalen psychischen
Grundlagen des Jugendalters zuriickzufuhren. . . . Wir haben die
Zeit der Pubertat als erne gestaltungsreiche Epoche des mensch-
lichen Lebens erkannt, haben die Genese der Traumwelt und die
Gestaltung der Eowley-Dichtung auf primitive psychische Grund-
lagen zuriickgefiihrt. Die so seltsamen ausseren Formen der
Chatterton-Dichtung, vor allem die Eowley-Sprache, haben wir
von diesem Gesichtspunkt aus betrachtet. Die "Falschung " wurde
uns auf Grand der jugendlichen Psyche verstandlicher. . . . Durch
eine solche Betrachtungsweise glauben wir . . . zum weiteren
Verstandnis der Eowley-Dichtung beigetragen zu haben. '

Charlotte Ramsay Lennox is dismissed by Professor Elton
in a couple of brief paragraphs which conclude with a quotation
from Mrs. Barbauld to the effect that her chief novel, The

25 Thomas Ohatterton und seine RowUy-Dichtung untersucht auf Grund
der Psychologie der Beifezeit, by Paid Staubert. (Bonner Studien zur
englischen Philologie. vol. xxiv.) pp. 162. M. 6.60.

302 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

Female Quixote, is no longer of interest, since the satire is out
of date. Nor is this unfair treatment if she is to be judged by
the intrinsic worth of her writings. Indeed, Miriam Rossiter
Small 26 claims no more for the best of them than that c As a
burlesque The Female Quixote is successful' and that it would
be most liked by a contemporary who had at some time c buried
himself in the romances *, while on the lesser examples of her
art the verdict is passed that: e She possesses little originality.
. . . The parts which, have freshness to-day are a few characters
. . . and the Colonial scenes drawn from Mrs. Lennox's childhood
experience. '

Yet it would be a mistake to think that Miss Small's careful
account of the life and writings of Mrs. Lennox is of merely
academic interest. The work is well done and in such a way as
to cast considerable light on contemporary literature and society.
Above all it illustrates the difficulties and courage of a woman
who had to live by her pen and contrived to do so in spite of
the propriety of her conduct. Mrs. Lennox was not popular with
the blue-stockings, nor was she given the entry to fashionable
society. But though Johnson thought her 'superior ... to ...
all ' the most admired contemporary savantes, and though she
was intimate with many of the foremost men of the time, no
breath of scandal ever touched her. Whatever may nowadays
be thought of her c genius \ in this respect, living as she did from
1720 to 1804 and unhappily married as she was, she must surely
be unique among eighteenth-century professional women-of-
letters.

'This slight essay 27 makes no pretensions to original research ;
it is ... pieced together from printed sources. * But Scott has
written a readable account of Day which presents e a philosopher
in search of the life of virtue and of a paragon among women 5 .
No other full-dress biography of Day is readily available, and
the eccentric author of Scmdford and Merton certainly merits to

26 Charlotte Ramsay Lennox: an Eighteenth-Century Lady of Letters,
by Miriam Rossiter Small. Yale Univ. Press and O.U.P. pp. viii+268.
11*. &L

27 The Exemplary Mr, Day, 1748-1789, by Sir S. H. Scott. Faber
and Faber. pp. 179. $$. M.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 303

be better-known to his fellow countrymen. We could wish.,
however, that Scott had found it possible to avoid having his
6 little laugh at Day 5 , his tilts at suffragettes and his generaliza-
tions about women. He writes best when he takes no super-
fluous trouble to entertain, and in truth his subject requires
no extraneous efforts to amuse. Day's extravagant views and
his attempts to live up to them need no embellishment.

In Who's Who in Boswdl? J. L. Smith-Dampier ' seeks . . .
to quicken interest in BoswelTs great book, by making the
characters live more fully before the readers' eyes '. He attempts
to do this by dividing a leap-year into days, and devoting one
date to each person mentioned, Johnson himself being allowed
the first twenty days in January, five days of 'Varia', 21 to
25 November, and a page for 'Leave Taking' under 30 Decem-
ber. 31 December, ' Retrospective ', consists of expressions of
gratitude for help given to the compiler, while Boswell and
his family, other biographies of Johnson and 'Writers on
Johnson', occupy the dates 21 to 28 February inclusive. With
these exceptions, a single page (and date) is devoted to each
person mentioned, be he important or unimportant, and since
the names occur in alphabetical order, the use of dates appears
to serve no purpose. The arrangement necessarily causes dis-
proportion, for some of the characters obviously merit fuller
treatment than others. Moreover, Smith-Dampier's composition
of his sentences and paragraphs is frequently at fault, and
anacolutha are of constant occurrence. Because of its errors in
arrangement and statement, the book is likely to gain less grati-
tude than it deserves for the industry that has been expended
on the accumulation of facts. Nor do we gain the impression
that Smith-Dampier has been more successful than Boswell in
imparting life to the characters introduced by the biographer.

Hans Reimers, in his essay on Jonathan Swift, 29 attempts to
reconcile the discrepancies which he finds between Swift's eso-

28 Who's Who in BosweU? by J. L. Smitli-Dampier. Blackwell.
pp. xx+366. 10s. 6d.

29 Jonathan Swift: Gedanken und Schriften uber Edigion und Kirche,
by Hans Beimers. Britanmica, vol. 9. Univ. of Hamburg and Fried-
richsen, de Gruyter. pp. 194, 1934. EM. 8.50.

304 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

teric and exoteric opinions on the subjects of Church and
religion. This dualism he connects with the "Tendenzen der
Aufklarung '. Swift is not to be judged by his literary pro-
nouncements alone, for these do not represent the inner conflict
which is more clearly exhibited in his letters, especially those
to Pope and Bolingbroke. His avowed rationalism here gives
place to an 'innere Uberzeugung' that reason is an imperfect
guide: feeling insists on breaking in. 'Deshalb sind auchdie
irrationalen Gegenstromungen im Seelenleben Swifts unver-
kennbar, obgleich er sich bemiiht, sie zu verdecken.' The
proof-reading leaves much to be desired and the essay is fall
of printers' errors.

In 1930 Dr. A. S. W. Rosenbach founded at the University
of Pennsylvania a Fellowship in Bibliography of which Shane
Leslie was the holder in 1933-4, The volume entitled The Script
of Jonathan Swiffi Q contains the three lectures which he delivered
in this capacity. The book is named after the first lecture; the
others, which do not come within the scope of this section,
deal respectively with The Barest Irish Books and with Saint
Patrick's Purgatory. Twenty-seven pages of notes supplement
the lectures, and there are also five illustrations, three of Swift's
handwriting, one of Stella's, and one of Rebecca Dingley's.

In the lecture on Swift's script, Leslie denies the authenticity
of the so-called * disguised handwriting' and maintains that
except for variations in size and in speed, it is uniform through-
out his life. His autograph is established, and so at last is also
that of Stella and of Mrs. Dingley. The other main point of the
lecture is the bearing of Swift's handwriting on the identifica-
tion of his poems which are c the worst edited of any poet, major
or minor, in English literature 3 , but are on the way to lose that
bad pre-eminence since Mr. Harold Williams is engaged in the
preparation of a reliable text. C 0f the bulk of Swiftian verse
Mr. Williams has come to the conclusion that 262 poems are
genuine and 138 attributions are doubtful, demonstrably un-
justifiable, or written by another hand/ Earlier editors, includ-
ing Elrington Ball, 'have too often included the doubtful with

* The Script of Jonathan Swift and Other JBsscvys, by Shane Leslie.
Univ. of Pennsylvania Press and O.U.P. pp. 98. 7s. 6d.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTUEY 305

the genuine ', and Faulkner's collection of 1735 still holds the
field ; Leslie has been so happy as to discover the copy of this
sent to Swift by the publishers and containing his marginal
corrections.

The first volume of 'Swiss Studies in English 5 consists of an
account by Rudolf Stamm of Der aufgeJcldrte Puritanismus
Daniel Defoes* 1 which starts from the assumption that since
Defoe lived at a period of intellectual upheaval, it was natural
that he ' should deceive himself as well as his public in an attempt
to avoid unpalatable truth '. Defoe was a Puritan by conviction,
but he was influenced by the ' Aufklarung '. *Er spielte vor sich
und der Welt die Rolle des religiosen Menschen, weil er trotz
seiner Modernitat noch das Bediirfnis nach dem absoluten
Halt empfand. ' But the new desire for liberty of thought and
action disturbed his Puritan faith in indubitable tenets and he
was torn between the comfort to be derived from the old creed
and the new yearning for free investigation in every direction,
religious, ethical, political, economic, and aesthetic.

Stamm attempts to determine 'wieviel vom religiosen Gehalt
des Puritanertums in Defoe noch lebendig war, wieviel und was
fiir anders geartete Anschauungen in ihn eindrangen, was fur
Kompromisse er schloss, sei es zufolge einer besonderen natiir-
lichen Anlage oder als GHed seiner Generation.' His study,
carefully documented and illustrated by quotations, makes for
the better understanding of the 'elusiveness 3 of Defoe.

Heinz Rente's analysis of the history of the reputations of
Richardson and Fielding 32 is based on considerations wholly
unfamiliar to English scholars. The first chapter, entitled 'Ge-
schichte und Stand', separates the two men in the following
strange paragraph: 'Die Ruhmesgeschichte von Richardson
und Fielding tragt in sich das Zeichen von Bibel und Mythos.
Ausdruck hierfiir ist das Standestum der Ruhmsprecher. In
ihnen verk5rpern und verwirklichen sich die beiden treibenden

31 Der aufgeMdrte Puritanismus Daniel Defoes, by Budolf Stamm.
Schweizer Anglistische Arbeiter I. Zurich: Mehan. pp. 344.

32 Richardson und Fielding; GescMchte ihres Ruhms: Literdrsoziolo-
gischer Versuch, by Heinz Rente. (Kolner Anglistische Arbeiten, 25.
Band.) Leipzig: Tauchnitz. pp. 218.

2762.16 -j

306 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTUEY

Weltkrafte. Christliches Bibeltum offenbart sich in dem Standes-
tum der Ruhmsprecher Richardsons, heidnisches Welttum offen-
bart sich. in dem Standestum der Ruhmsprecher Fieidings.'
Their literary art and the history of their reputation are ex-
amined from this point of view; we learn, for example, of
'Spruch fiir Richardson und gegen Fielding unter christlich-
geistlichem Einfluss', of 'Adeliger Rnhmspruch fiir Fielding'
and so forth. Presumably the argument is clear to those who
understand the contemporary German 'Weltanschauung 5 : to
others it will be incomprehensible.

Eugene Joliat, in noting the revived popularity of Smollett
in recent years, points out that his supposed lack of influence
in France has been assumed without adequate examination of
the facts. In Smollett et la France** he makes good this defi-
ciency 5 treating in the first part of his work French influence
on the novelist's early writings, and proceeding thence to his
relations with France and his opinions of the French nation.
Finally, he discusses the reception of Smollett's work in France
in his own day and subsequently, showing in detail why the
picaresque method of Smollett could not be popular in a country
where literary ideals differed so profoundly from his. Smollett's
type of humour, the absence of love-interest in his novels, his
brutality, his insular nationalism, his whole mentality, were
antagonistic to the French genius. Thus, though Smollett's
work was known and translated into French, it was less appre-
ciated and less influential than that of any one of his great
contemporaries, Fielding, Richardson, and Sterne.

Joliat's investigation is conducted with the'thoroughness and
skill we have been taught to expect in French works of compara-
tive criticism, and he justifies the claim made at the outset of
his task:

6 A Foccasion de Smollett et pour ainsi dire a travers lui, nous
abordons des probl&mes plus larges, plus gen^raux. D'abord, en
montrant ce que cehti-ci doit a Lesage, nous etudions une des
phases les plus importantes de Fhistoire du roman de BKBUTS et
d'aventures. Les idees de Smollett sur la France sont a peu pres
celles de la plupart des Anglais de son temps. . . . L'etude de la

3 * SmoUett et la France, by Eug&ne Joliat. Pads: Champion, pp. 280.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 307

fortune litteraire de Smollett en France permet de constater les
differences fondamentales qui ont existe entre le gout anglais et
le gout fransais. '

It was well worth while to complete the undertaking conceived
in such a spirit.

When dealing with a book entitled Make and Milton?* the
impulse to turn first to the index to look for the entries under
Blake's Milton seemed not unnatural. But the desire could not
be gratified, for Saurat's book contains no index, nor did an
examination of the text reveal any adequate exposition of the
work so entitled, nor indeed of any of Blake's prophetic books.
Yet a critic as enlightened as Laurence Binyon claims that 'it
is through what are called the Prophetic Writings that Blake's
full message was given to the world ', and, rightly or wrongly,
Blake himself believed that his greatest poetry was contained
in them. Saurat's omission is, thus, a serious matter, so serious
indeed, that for the present writer it vitiates his whole treat-
ment of his subject. Blake's theories, he says, 'were built in a
ramshackle manner upon intuitions and visions: but this is
not always an inferiority, and sometimes . . . the less logical
thinker is the more profound 3 . It seems clear, then, that the
theories cannot be grasped without reference to the 'intuitions
and visions', and that no very useful purpose is served by a
comparison merely between the logical thought of the one man
and the unmethodical statements of the other. Saurat does not
appear to penetrate beneath the surface in a treatment of Blake
which disregards what is most essential and vital in his genius
the imaginative insight which to him signifies so much more than
understanding.

The title Jewish Characters in Eighteenth-Century English
Fiction and Drama 35 sufficiently indicates the scope of H. R. S.
van der Veen's careful treatise, in which he deals with an aspect
of the subject that has hitherto been neglected. The result of

34 Blake and Milton, by Denis Saouat. Stanley Nott. pp. 160.
5*.

a6 Jewish Characters in Eighteenth-Century English Fiction and Drama*
by H. R. S. van der Veen. Groningen : Wolters. pp.308. G-ld. 4.90.

308 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

Ms investigation is to show that not much of consequence is
discoverable in the literary treatment of the Jew at this period.
With rare exceptions, though he is frequently introduced, it is
as a stock figure of caricature, which betrays little or no first-
hand knowledge on the part of the writer. Smollett is almost
alone in portraying (in his Count Fathom) a c benevolent Hebrew *
who is meant to be attractive. Van der Veen has also succeeded
in unearthing at the Huntington Library the lost play called
The Israelites or the Pampered Nabob, which likewise treats the
Jew as 'an ordinary human being' and neither as a buffoon nor
as a monster. The play has traditionally been ascribed to
Smollett, but, as is here shown, without good cause.

4 A study of the sublime . . . comes very near being a study of
English thought and arts, for we find the idea applied to rhetoric,
to literature, to painting, to sculpture, to music, to biblical
criticism, and to natural scenery ; and it has its roots in the psycho-
logy and the philosophy of the times. ... I have attempted to
find as many theories of sublimity as possible, and to summarize
them clearly and truthfully, relating them incidentally to con-
temporary movements in literature . . . painting and . . . natural
scenery ; and to view all these theories as an important link in the
chain of ideas that . . , connects organically the literature of the
Augustan age with that of the age of Wordsworth. '

In these words, Samuel H. Monk describes the scope of his
book on The Sublime** which begins with a chapter on 'Longinus
and the Longinian Tradition in England' and another on 'Boileau
and Sftvain' before proceeding to deal with English criticism.
The study concludes with a bibliography of ten pages which
does not include 'miscellaneous titles referred to only in pass-
ing'. The author has done his work with intelligence as well as
industry: he concludes modestly that 'As a general interpre-
tation of the eighteenth century this study probably has nothing
new to offer, but it has sought to show from its own point of
view the slow and unconscious growth of English art away from
the orderly garden of the Augustan age to the open fields (the
jungle, if you will) of the romantic period'. Many of Monk's

36 The tSubUme: a Study of Critical Theories in 18th Century England,
by Samuel H. Monk. N&w York: MX.A. and O.U.P. pp. viii-f 252.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 309

readers, probably most of them, will find a great deal of fresh
material to help them to an understanding of the age.

In Aspects of Eighteenth-Century Nature Poetry*** C. V. Deane
lays 'particular emphasis ... on the need for discriminating
between a lifeless and an imaginative use of conventional poetic
language, and between a pictorical and a poetic sense of design',
in order to show the virtue rather than the weakness of the
nature-verse of the age. Quite properly, he prefers to examine
in detail the work of certain selected poets who appeal to him
personally Pope, Ambrose and John Philips, and Shenstone
rather than to concern himself 'unduly with poems that belong
to literary history rather than to literature '. In this, incident-
ally, he agrees with Shenstone who wrote that 'it is idle to be
assiduous in the perusal of inferior poetry'. Deane begins his
study by a brief comparison of eighteenth-century poetic diction
with earlier conventions, and then proceeds to an examination
of 'Theories of Generalized Form and Diction' in criticism,
and of the supposed influence of landscape art on 'Principles of
Visual Composition in eighteenth-century poetry 9 . He makes
the valuable point that the poet has a greater freedom of selec-
tion than the painter and also ' complete control over the order
in which the objects are presented'. A good descriptive poet
knows how to select in such a way as to ' convey the atmosphere
of the scene', and passages from Cowper and from Thomson
are cited to illustrate the different effects attained by such
choice of objects, and to show 'that the "precise suggestion of
a visible whole" ... is contrived by methods of composition
and grouping analogous to, and often identical in aim, with
those of landscape painting, but purely poetic in substance and
execution". Good descriptive poetry, even when it employs
conventional images and uses conventional diction, adds * con-
cealed or subordinated particularity' which imparts life and
originality to the effect attained. In a masterly analysis of
Pope's Pastorals, Deane shows 'the unforced pervasiveness of
their landscape setting', and Part Three of his essay illustrates
his sensitive and wise appraisal of the poets with whom he

37 Aspects of Eighteenth-Century Nature Poetry, by C. V. Deane,
Blackwell. pp. 145. Is. 6d.

310 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

deals. His exposition is a genuine contribution to the better
understanding of eighteenth-century nature-poetry and of its
underlying principles, and is an example of criticism that is
original and forceful without any appearance of self-assertion.
The lack of an index is a serious defect in a book which should
be available for reference.

In Georgic Tradition in English Poetry** Dwight L. Burling
examines the descriptive nature-poetry of the eighteenth cen-
tury from an angle somewhat different from that of his pre-
decessors. As his title implies, Burling is concerned with the
influence and imitation of Virgil's Georgics, 'that best poem of
the best poet', 'the most complete, elaborate, and finished piece
of all antiquity', as Dryden and Addison considered it. Cyder,
by John Philips, 1706, is cited as the poem 'which fixed the
English georgic as a type and determined its form', 'ingeniously
adapting the themes of an admired original into terms of native
conditions'. Thomson's Seasons is, however, the chief example
of the 'descriptive-didactic tendency*, and a chapter is devoted
to an examination of its relation to Virgil and to its general
characteristics and influence. There follow sections on the
* Poetry of Country Occupations ', ' The Muse of Utility ', ' Days
and Season *, 'A Note on Local Verse', and a Conclusion which
summarizes the whole book as 'The story . . . of the origin and
growth in England of a georgic tradition in poetry, of its various
mutations and of the complementary, indeed inseparable, growth
of the descriptive form introduced by Thomson, an offspring
of the georgic *. Nothing need be added to this account of its
contents.

In Minuet: A Critical Survey of French and English Literary
Ideas in the Eighteenth Century** P. C. Green attempts to in-
vestigate the reciprocal influence of the two countries on drama,
poetry, and the novel. The comparison is made by a student of
the literatures who speaks with detailed first-hand knowledge

38 Georgic Tradition in English Poetry, by Dwight L. Durling. Colum-
bia Univ. Press and O.U.P. pp. xii+260. 15#.

S9 Minuet: A Critical Survey of French and English Lit&rQtry Ideas in
the Eighteenth Century, by F. C. Green. Dent. pp. 490. 15*.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 311

of both, and he succeeds in proving that the supposed interaction
of ideas has been exaggerated, and that, as he puts it in his
concluding paragraph, 'In examining the writings of two diver-
gent races, with regard to questions of resemblance or influence,
it is fatally easy to lose one's sense of perspective. y Thus he
has little difficulty in showing, for example, that too much has
been made by enthusiastic inquirers of the presumed effect of
Shakespeare's influence on the work of Voltaire, and that
ignorance of French conceptions of tragedy has been responsible
for an exaggeration of the significance of supposed likenesses
between unlike things. No real contact was possible e between
the slow, cumulative, experimental method of the English
dramatist and the concentrated, tense, swift manner of French
tragedy'. Similarly in poetry, 'Thomson, Young, and Mac-
pherson were never really assimilated by the eighteenth-century
French writers. Only in so far as they already had something
in common with French taste were they imitated. What was
essentially English vanished in the process. . . . The invasion of
literature by sensibility . . , proceeded almost wholly from
French sources.' As a final illustration we may cite Green's
dictum about Diderot and Richardson, that 'in everything that
concerns the art of the novel, these two writers live in different
worlds'.

These somewhat haphazard instances of Green's conclusions
are necessarily inadequate to show the steps by which they are
reached. Nor can they reproduce the arguments and the quota-
tions by which they are supported, nor give a fair impression
of the scope of the book. Nevertheless they serve to represent
the main thesis, which is that the 'pursuit of "parallels" and
"sources" often leads the keen research scholar to neglect the
substance for the shadow, and thus to forget what a priceless
illumination may be obtained from the comparative study of
artists who resemble each other in nothing but the fact that
each has endeavoured to express ... the traditional spirit of
his race and of his time '.

The contention may be taken as proved and the writer of
Minuet convinces his reader that he is competent to deal with
the ramifications of his difficult subject. We think, neverthe-
less, that he is too obsessed by the errors of his predecessors, and

312 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

that Ms book suffers by what the writer of the blurb acclaims
as his 'wit, freshness, and grace', but what mature readers are
more likely to condemn as lapses in taste and judgement.

'The Catalogue of the Collection of Prints of Political and
Personal Satire in the British Museum was begun by Mr. Frederic
George Stephens ' and comprised five volumes * covering events
of the years 1320 to 1770.' M. D. George 40 takes up the work
where he dropped it in 1883 ; the present volume covers the
years of the American Revolution and it is intended that she
shall continue her task up to the Reform Bill of 1832. That she
is performing it with the care and competence to be expected
from the author of London Life in the Eighteenth Century is
indicated by the facts that the volume here noticed has required
five years for its compilation, and that the description of some
1,500 prints occupies 785 octavo pages. This is not the place
for a detailed account of her achievement, which nevertheless
requires mention in The Year's Work, because, as Mrs. George
puts it in her Introduction, the political prints ( chronologically
arranged . . . show in a remarkable way the tempo of political
life, the fluctuations and interaction of opinion and propaganda.
There is scarcely a political or diplomatic question which they
do not illustrate, often from an unaccustomed angle, ' while,
* Taken together, the sequence of political and social prints
reflects, as nothing else does, the changing and elusive spirit
of the period. ' Ridicule of the frenchman, the Scot, Irishman,
and Welshman, of the e cit\ of life and manners in general, of
extravagance in dress and changing fashions in particular, and
of the * passion for personal scandal and the ruthlessness with
which it was exploited *, these and many other themes are
favourite subjects of the caricaturists, and c in a period when
political and social life were inextricably mixed, when politics
were personal and social to an extreme degree . . , the line
between political and personal satires is naturally vague and
fluctuating'.

40 Catalogue of Political and Personal Satires Preserved in the Depart-
ment of Prints and Drawings in the British Mweum, vol. v, 1771-1783,
by Mary Dorothy George. Printed by Order of the Trustees, pp. xlii+
852.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTUBY 313

The book may be recommended as equally attractive to
students of the eighteenth century whether their chief pre-
occupation be with literary, social, or political history, or with
the development of satiric art.

Frederic Ewen's Bibliography of Eighteenth-Century English
Literature 41 continues the very useful series of Columbia Univer-
sity bibliographies which, intended primarily for undergradu-
ates, should be of value to students of all ages. It is subdivided
under the main headings 'Background', 'Literary History',
'Aesthetics and Literary History 3 , 'The Age of Pope 3 , 'The
Age of Johnson ', ' Literary Currents, Tendencies, and Attitudes ',
and, with various subdivisions and a Subject Index, appears to
contain references to most of the important texts and critical
works which will be required by any but specialists.

The chief contributions to the current Burns Chronicle 4 * are
Letters of and Concerning Robert Burns, four of which are printed
for the first time ; and the second instalment of the Correspon-
dence of John Syme and Alexander Cunningham, consisting often
letters, of which only one has hitherto appeared and that
'through a gross breach of faith*. The letters include details of
the poet's last illness and death. There are also articles on
'Burns's Last Years' by Franklyn B, Snyder, in which he offers
evidence to show that the poet was not an habitual drunkard ;
by John McVie, on 'The Lochlie Litigation and the Sequestra-
tion of William Burnes ' ; and by Davidson Cook and J. C. E. on
'Louisa Fontenelle, actress'.

Essays by Divers Hands (R.S.L., vol. xiv), as noted above,
p. 25, contains a contribution by D. Nichol Smith entitled
'Jonathan Swift: Some Observations*. This begins with the
characteristic remark that the writer makes no claim to a
full understanding of Swift', a statement which, as the paper
proves, is not to be taken at its face value. 'Full understanding '
of Swift is unattainable. Nichol Smith's 'impressions' derived

41 Bibliography of Eighteenth-Century English Literature, by Frederic
Ewen. Columbia Univ. Press and O.U.P. pp. 32. 2s.

42 Burns Chronicle and Club Directory. 2nd Series, vol. x. Kilmamock:
The Burns Federation, pp. viii+212. 3$.

314 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

from detailed knowledge of his writings combined with a
study of 'what he said intimately to his friends' assuredly go
far to reveal the secret of a personality which has baffled most
commentators. He believes 'that Swift was a definitely re-
ligious man with an overmastering sense of the weakness of
human nature*,

Primitivism and the Idea of Progress in JSnglish Popular
Literature of the Eighteenth Century, by Lois Whitney (Balti-
more: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1934), has not been sent for
notice in The Year*s Work.

Was Ambrose Philips a Ballad Editor ? is the question dis-
cussed in Anglia (lix. 1-2) by Lillian de la Torre Bueno, who
gives her reasons for disbelieving that A Collection of Old Ballads
was his work, but that of some one who was unacquainted with
historical facts familiar to Philips and whose literary opinions
were at variance with his. In lix. 3-4 of the same periodical,
Otto L. Jiriczek investigates the significance of Loda in
Macpherson's Ossian, and comes to the conclusion that c Aus
dem Odinstein wurden in ossianischer Sprache the stones of
Loden for Blair der Name des Gottes, fiir Macpherson der
Kultstatte Loda *.

Otto L. Jiriczek's Zur Bibliographie und Textgeschichte von
Hugh Blair's Critical Dissertation on the Poems of Ossian should
be noted in Eng. Stud. (Vol. 70, Part 1). In Part 3 Herbert
Drennon investigates Newtonianism in James Thomson's Poetry,
concluding that the poet was c a scientific rationalist' who was
profoundly influenced by the views of the school of Newton.

In L. Her. (June) J. S. Collis writes of William Cobbett as 'the
last and greatest of the old English peasants', c a rebel . . . more
conservative than any of his foes ', one whose talent lay in his
'power to expose abuses'.

JT.Zr.J5f. for April contains an article by James R. Sutherland
entitled A Note on the Last Years of Defoe, in which he finds in a
lawsuit in which Defoe figured the clue to the hitherto un-
explained troubles that beset him in his last years.

Mod. Phil. (Nov., contd. in Feb. 1936) contains an article by
Theodore F. M. Newton on William Pittis and Queen Anne

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 315

Journalism, which throws light on the political scurrilities of the
time and the part played in them by Pittis, who usually pre-
ferred anonymity. Also in Nov. Arthur E. Case writes on Pope,
Addison, and the 'Atticus' lines, supplementing Sherburn's
account of their history by the discovery of a document, in the
handwriting of Spence, containing the original version of his
story about Gildon and Addison, This seems to show that the
attack Pope had in mind was an anonymous pamphlet entitled
A true character of Mr. Pope and his writings, which lie erron-
eously ascribed to the joint efforts of Dennis and Gildon. This
pamphlet appeared in 1716, two years before the Memoirs of
Wycherley, and in the same year, as Pope alleged, he had sent the
first sketch of his satire to Addison. The inference is that Pope's
account of the business may be trusted: at any rate the chrono-
logical difficulty disappears. Research Studies of the State College
of Washington (Dec,) includes Some Notes on Fielding's Plays
by t Emmett L. Avery, in which he deals with the dates of their
first production.

In The Satiric Background of the Attack on the Puritans in
Swift's 'A Tale of a Tub* (P.H.L.A., March) a M. Webster
shows by means of a descriptive bibliography of satires between
1621 and 1700 that there was a long tradition of attack on
Puritans in many ways resembling that of Swift himself. In the
same periodical (June) Eranklyn Bliss Snyder examines in detail
the evidence concerning Burns and the Smuggler Rosamond, and
Carroll Collier Moreland has an article on Bitson's Life of Bobin
Hood. Moreland concludes that uncritical as was Bitson's use
of his material, he was so 'thorough and painstaking' that
'practically nothing has been added to [his] references y by sub-
sequent scholars. In Sept. A. Watkins- Jones publishes for the
first time the full text of three letters of Percy on the subject of
the Rowley Poems. The article, Bishop Percy, Thomas Warton,
and Chatt&rton's Bowley Poems, also shows the high esteem in
which Chatterton was held by the two scholars, despite their dis-
belief in the authenticity of his manuscripts. In Dec., in Forged
Letters of Laurence Sterne, Lewis P, Curtis examines forty-seven
'doubtfiil letters' in the light of various tests and shows why
they cannot with any probability be attributed to Sterne.

316 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

A. Lytton Sells in R.E.S, (Jan.) considers The History of
Francis Wills: A Literary Mystery, deciding that the evidence of
authorship is inconclusive. It cannot be asserted that Goldsmith
was not the author, but it is more probably the work of Arthur
Murphy. In the same periodical (April) W. Vaughan Reynolds
discusses The Reception of Johnson's Prose Style, concluding
with the opinion that 'his composition embodied the ideals of
a century marked by tireless inquiry into the principles of
prose technique'. In July and Oct. H. W, Hausermann examines
Aspects of Life and Thought in 'Robinson Orusoe\ paying
attention specially to the influence of Calvinistic theology and
the commercial and social elements to be found in it.

In Univ. of Toronto Quarterly (Oct.) Florence A. Smith in-
vestigates The Light Reading of Dr. Johnson and succeeds in
proving 'his wholehearted enjoyment of romances \ his admira-
tion for fairy tales, and his approval of realistic fiction.

In T.L.S. the following contributions should be noted:
Feb. 14, A Pope Problem, by Howard P. Vincent (Authorship
of Mr. Taste's Tour)} Feb. 21, John Wilkes in the Strand, by
Thos. B. Shepherd (publisher of Churchill's Works, 1767) ; Feb.
28, Pope and Tickett, by E. Eustace Tickell ; Mar. 28, The School
for Scandal, An Early Edition, by Geo, H. Nettleton; Apr. 4,
'Rasselas' in Dutch, by A. J. Barnouw; Apr. 25, The Beggar's
Opera, by J. R. Sutherland (Its origin in The Flying Post),
Richardson on the Index, by Florian J. Schleck (Banning of
Pamela, 1744) ; May 2, A Swift Epitaph, by E. L. Allhusen ;
May 9, Reply by H. Williams ; June 6, Pope's Lost Sermon on
Glass-Bottles, by N. Ault; discussion continued June 13 by
E. Heath and C.W.B., June 20 by G. Sherburn, June 27 by
J. R. Sutherland, July 4 by N. Ault, July 11 by G. Sherburn ;
June 6, The Drapier's Letters, by H. Williams, Letters of Laurence
Sterne, by Margaret Shaw ; July 4, Collinses Ode on Colonel Boss,
by E. H. W. Meyerstein, A Riddle by Prior, by J. R. Moore;
July 11, An Essay by Collins, by Frederick Page; discussion
continued July 25 by E. H, W. Meyerstein, Aug. 8 by E.
Blunden ; Aug. 29, Rassdas and the Persian Tales, by Geoffrey
Tillotson, Samuel Richardson and 'Sir William Harrington',
by W. M. Sale, Jnr, (Evidence of Miss Meades's authorship) ;

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 317

Nov. 2, Bowles and the Sonnet, by Geoffrey Tillotson ; NOT. 23,
Pope or Arbuthnot, by J. H. Sutherland (Authorship of Annus
Mirabilis, 1722) ; Dec. 21, The School for Scandal: First Edition
of the Authentic Text, by G. H. Nettleton; A Note on Robert
Fergusson, by D. Stuart Imrie ; Dec. 28, Smollett and the Case of
James Annesley, by Lewis M. Knapp.

XII
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER

I. 1800-1860
By H. V. BOTJTH

(1) The Romantic Revival

THE reader in search of some author who could introduce him
to this year's study of the Romantic Movement would readily
turn to H. C. Robinson and at once open Edith J. Morley's
volume. 1 But he would be just a little disappointed, for this
essay is itself only an introduction to the forthcoming selections
from the diary and reminiscences. As such it is still very well
worth reading. Miss Morley succeeds in creating an atmosphere
which is fascinating and yet keeps your attention fixed on
Crabb himself. Apart from this central figure the special
student will be most interested in the comments passed on
Tennyson, and the general reader will appreciate most the
encounters with Goethe.

There is also a neatly written and satisfying essay 2 by L. E.
Holman on Maria Kelly, an actress who won Lamb's admira-
tion, and this study will be welcomed by students who seek a
side-light on the early nineteenth century. The story of her life
also illuminates Lamb himself from an unfamiliar angle. There
are some sayings, episodes, and letters of his which become un-
forgettable when thrown into relief on this background ; for
instance his answer to Miss Kelly's letter, when she refused his
offer of marriage. But for the most part this biography belongs
to the history of the theatre.

When we come to monographs and direct studies, we have
plenty of work on Lamb himself. E. V. Lucas's edition 3 of the

1 The Life and Times of Henry Crabb Robinson, by Edith J. Morley.
Dent. pp. ix+212. 10*. 6d.

2 Lamb's 'Barbara S V The Life of Frances Maria Kelly, Actress,
by L. E. Holman. Methuen. pp. xi-f-117. 6s.

3 The Letters of Charles Lamb. To which are added those of his sister

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER 319
letters is not only remarkable as the first complete collection,
containing over a thousand pieces, but also because of the
notes, explanatory, informative, and corrective, which follow
each letter. We have no space to hint at all the reader will find,
but he or she should look out especially for the tribute paid by
the editor and by Edmund Blunden to the personality of Mrs.
Anderson. A perusal of the letters leads on to E. C. Johnson's
Lamb Always Mia, 4 which in a certain limited sense is a reply
to F. V. Morley's contention 5 that the essayist was destined
by nature to be a man of action, or at least a leader in the march
of civilization, but that he resigned these prospects when he
dedicated his life to the care of his mad sister and used Eliza-
bethan literature as an outlet or expression for his repressed
impulses. Mss Johnson takes more or less the view of E. V.
Lucas, that Lamb essentially fulfilled himself. In fact she retells
the story of his life, showing that his environment shaped his
mind as if in the course of nature. His conversations, friend-
ships, and opinions, the places he visited, the letters he wrote
were his very self. He was as one of his contemporaries. Like
Wordsworth he fell under the influence of Coleridge ; like Hazlitt,
De Quincey, Hunt, and Southey he received the impulse to write
from the development of nineteenth-century journalism. His
mind was in some degree formed by his talent for sociability
which rendered him the centre of so many c at homes' in other
houses besides his own. Miss Johnson displays a wide and deep
knowledge of Lamb and uses her knowledge constructively.
Her 75 pages of notes are full of interesting and unusual
information.

Coleridge, the dominating personality of this period, has
himself now been subjected to a process of close analysis and
reconstruction. 6 Stephen Potter has made an unmistakably
determined effort to create the spirit, the ever changing but
ever progressing purposiveness of this man of unstable purpose.

Mary Lamb, ed. by E. V. Lucas. Methuen. vol. i, pp. xliii+432;
vol. ii, pp. 467 ; vol. iii, pp. 468. 60s. the 3 vols.

4 Lamb Always Mia, by E. C. Johnson. Methuen. pp. xviii+288.
7s. 6d.

5 See The Year's Work, xiii. 282.

6 Coleridge and 8. T. C. y by Stephen Potter. Cape. pp. 285. 8s. Gd.

320 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER

Guided, perhaps, by his own discerning essay 7 on D. H. Law-
rence, the critic notes that Coleridge was not (like Lamb) all
of a piece. He might have been so ; a certain predominating
drift runs through his inward and outward life ; nor can his
words be understood except in the light of this force. But the
drift did not enjoy free play. Coleridge's personality was
inhibited by Ms character ; Ms self was held in check by his
ego. Potter has set himself the task of examining tMs dualism
wMch divided and nearly wrecked the poet's life, and of in-
quiring how far Coleridge freed himself from S. T. C. According
to the critic's analysis the inhibiting and superimposed charac-
ter appears in the poet's formalism, affectation, ego-centricity,
self-contempt, and sometimes insincerity. The true fundamental
Coleridge is to be recognized in the enthusiastic purposiveness
of Ms pantisocratic creed ; in Ms quest for ideas and convictions
wMch would grow and evolve in his mind; in the quest for
friends whose contact intensified Ms spiritual development, and
helped him to study the universe with 'my shaping spirit of
imagination' ; in Ms cultivation of a religion wMch could recon-
cile Ms philosophy with Ms powers of emotional creativeness.
This fusion was never quite effected ; there was always a certain
rift between what he felt and could perform ; Ms self-expression
could never equal Ms self-expressiveness. So he lost the
capacity for naive experience, and relapsed into an affected,
artificial character, compact of cultivated ideas and literary
mannerisms, especially after Ms first continental visit in 1806.
The rest of Ms life was an effort to fuse these two identities to
unify acknowledged wishes with Mdden needs. Hence Ms quest
for Reason (as opposed to Understanding) by wMch he could
merge Ms own will in the Will of Life. It follows that (contrary
to the usual opinion) he did not decay, nor lose integrity, c in
the coils of the world and of Ms own character', but he descended
into the depths to gather the threads together again and to be
able to look out on tMs drab familiar world with the wonder
and imagination of a child.

Thus literary scholarsMp is applied to clarify a moral and
psycMc problem of personal importance to every other reader

7 See The Year's Work, xi. 354.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER 321
of Coleridge. Compared with many critical essays, the inquiry
almost constitutes a new departure we shall notice something
similar in Morgan's Epitaph on George Moore but, of course,
the scheme bristles with difficulties, and Potter sometimes
rather obscures the issue or at least complicates it. His effort at
synthesis is occasionally above his powers. But at his worst
he is stimulating and at his best he cannot be read too carefully.
He is good on Coleridge's choice of 'the seminative word 3 , on
his study of Shakespeare as an interpretation of his own
psychological complexity, on his contact with friends as oppor-
tunities for self-discovery, on his study of Kant and Schelling
as "coequals in experience', above all on Coleridge's study of
life (for instance in Aids to Reflection, Hints towards the Forma-
tion of a more comprehensive theory of Life). This elaborate
study, of which only a few headings have been mentioned here,
is indirectly illustrated by Miss Kennedy's Bibliography, 8 which
embraces not only editions, bibliographies, and criticisms, but
also the evidence of his contacts and relationships.

Wordsworth has been subjected to a dissection no less un-
conventional and independent than that of his quondam Mend
Coleridge, and with results that are even more unsatisfying.
W. L. Sperry, in Wordsworth's Anti-climax* reviews the usual
reasons advanced to explain the poet's decline, and then goes
on to maintain that 'the most dismal anti-climax of which the
history of literature holds record' (H. W. Garrod) was due to
none of these influences, nor to any special cause. The sterility
which set in before 1810 was the natural and inevitable con-
sequence of the former fruitfulness. The flame burnt itself out
because there was nothing more to burn. Wordsworth was too
consistent and firm-set. He could not adapt himself to the
march of time and the progress of his own spirit, so he became
necessarily hard and straitened as he descended into the vale
of years. He wrote, in Jeffrey's phrase, 'avowedly for the

8 Samuel Taylor Coleridge: a Selected Bibliography . , ., compiled by

Virginia W. Kennedy, assisted by Mary N. Barton Baltimore: The

Enoch Pratt Free Library, pp. vii-j-151.

9 Wordsworth's Anti-climax, by W. L. Sperry. Harvard Univ. Press
and O.U.P. pp. vii+228. $2.50. 10s. Qd.

2762.16 X

322 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER
purpose of exalting a system '. It was based on Hartley's Theory
of the Human Mind, on The Principle of the Association of Ideas,
and probably on Alison's Essay on Taste. These treatises,
together with Coleridge's conversations, had convinced him
that 'innate ideas 5 play no part in creating poetry. In child-
hood we receive sense-impressions ; these leave a deposit in the
form of simple ideas, which are the memory of prior simple
sensations. These simple ideas associate with one another and
thus produce complex ideas, which become the normal food
for thought. But to understand and feel them deeply we must
analyse them, that is to say, trace them backwards, first to
simple ideas, then to the sensations from which these simple
ideas sprang. Thus we learn to live intensely and also to realize
the continuity of our personality. Consequently, like Proust
a century later, Wordsworth's studies of simple life and elemen-
tal experience were accomplished not so much for their own
sake as for the sake of self-discovery, and for that reason they
are too intellectual to breed new thoughts, and, were it not so,
this theory of creativeness was bound to restrict the poet to
a range of subjects soon to be exhausted. As Jeffrey says, he
had sunk too much capital in a single venture.

Should the reader wish to examine and prove this explanation
for himself, he will find no little help in E. de Selincourt's
edition 10 of the letters which Dorothy and Wordsworth wrote
during the period in which the poet was giving his deepest and
most powerful expression to all that he experienced both with-
out and within ; and he will also find a most useful commentary
in B. Ifor Evans's anthology. 11 The value of a selection largely
depends on whether it is primarily designed for schools or for
unattached lovers of poetry who already know something of
their author. Evans is obviously thinking of the beginner, and
he is no doubt well advised to form his collection out of poems
which appear in nearly every anthology. Even his two long
excerpts from The Prelude are taken from the earlier books,

10 The Early Letters of William and Dorothy Wordsworth (1787-1806),
arranged and edited by E. de Selincourt. O.ILP. pp. 578. 26s.

11 Selections from Word&worth, ed. by B. Ifor Evans. Methuen.
pp. 217. 3*. ed.

THE NINETEENTH CENTUEY AND AFTER 323
which are most usually read. But the introduction is well
above the average ; in fact, it is a remarkable condensation of
Wordsworthian biography and scholarship. Some of Ms pro-
nouncements might be queried, for instance, the assertion that
this same Prelude 'remains Ms central acMevement as a poet' ;
at some other times one would have liked to know the source
and authority for some of the unexpected information he gives,
especially in the notes which are most helpful for beginners.
But whether it is Wordsworth or his commentator who speaks,
there is something worth the attention of the most advanced
students.

The same cannot be said of Peter Quennell's Byron?* wMch
contains some interesting paragraphs on the rise of the middle
class and on the extent and appearance of London, but is not
concerned with the background of literature nor with the poet's
position and artistic acMevement, but with Ms character as
revealed during the hectic years 1812-15. There is a surprising
number of quotations ; references, sources, and authorities are
sometimes given ; but for the most part the biography aims at
being picturesque and fascinating. The result is a thoroughly
readable volume, often suggestive if diffuse, but it leaves the
reader with much the same impression as can be gathered from
previous books.

There is much more to learn and enjoy in H. W. Dormer's
writings 13 on T. L. Beddoes. His very ample selections, con-
taining practically the whole literary output, with the selector's
long introduction, are, of course, the reader's best starting-
point, but the volume 14 on Beddoes's character and development
is most worth discussing here. TMs essay is a careful study by
a man with an artistic conscience and a sense of literary tradi-
tion, who examines a minor poet in order to convince himself
and us that creative inspiration is real and vital. So he dwells

12 Byron: the Years of Fame, by Peter QuennelL Faber and Faber.
pp. 383. 155.

13 The Works of Thomas Lovett Eeddoes, ed. by H. W. Donner. O.UJP,
pp. hdv+834. 25$,

14 Thomas Lovell Beddoes: the Making of a Poet, by H. W. Donner-
Oxford: Blackwell. pp, 403. ISs.

324 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER
first on the conflict in early nineteenth-century drama between
the influences of the Renaissance and the Romantic Movement
and inquires how far Beddoes (soon after his mother's death)
fused the two elements in Torrismond ; how thereafter he learnt
to draw his imagery from 'the world of Spirits alive in an
eternal life' and began to discard 'Elizabethanism'; how at
Qdttingen he studied medicine, partly in order to base Ms
poetic ideas on scientific fact ; how he grew so accustomed to
the thought of death that it eventually became an inspiration
full of calmness and idealism. In Death's Jest-Boole we realize
at what high argument the poet is aiming, what message he
purposes to impart to the drama. His failure is fully discussed
and the latter stages of Ms career, as politician, as well as poet
and student. In the end the critic claims for him a position
among the immortals of Ms age as a fragmentary genius whose
struggle for perfection released the sources of human emotion
and by the magic of art turned the adversities of fate into
harmonious poetry'.

The more genial and sociable aspects of Beddoes's life have
also been revealed by the same author in his curious collection 15
of unpublished letters by great contemporaries to tMs man
who then seemed great.

Meanwhile the study of Scott, through Ms letters, continues,
thanks to the labours of Sir Herbert Grierson. Vol. viii 16 carries
the life three years further with 296 letters of wMch 200 have
never before been printed and 64 never correctly printed.
These documents are for the most part confined to Scott's
private and family interests or to public events, though we also
learn something of the publishing of Medgauntlet and of the
origin ofAuld Robin Gray. Vol. ix 17 contains 190 letters never
before printed and 68 never correctly printed. These lead up
to the bankruptcy and bear witness first of all to their author's

15 The Brouming Box: or the Life and Works of T. L. Beddoes as
reflected in Letters by his Friends and Admirers, ed. by H. W. Donner.
OJJ.P. pp. xv+190. 15s.

16 The Letters of Sir Walter Scott, 1823-1825> ed. by H. J. C. Grierson,
assisted by D. Cook, W. M. Parker, and others. Constable, vol. viii,
pp. xviii+512. IS*.

17 Letters . . . 1825-6. vol. ix, pp. xvi+509. ISs.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND APTEE 325
sanguine hopes, and then finally to Ms stoicism in disaster. All
of them, whatever their tone and content, offer something
better than biography or literary annotation the revelation
of a great character in contact with life, experience undistorted
by the imaginative medium.

Keats's letters and memorabilia also continue to be searched
and re-edited as the most reliable avenues to the vision of his
genius. M. B. Forman's new one-volume edition 18 is wholly
admirable. This publication has gained both by its additions
and subtractions (of price as well as of matter), but is in sub-
stance the counterpart of the two-volume edition which has
already 19 been discussed. The reader can be left to form his
own opinion of their value.

He must also, by now, have formed his own idea of Clare's
poetical genius, after reading Blunden's and Alan Porter's
selection of the best work; and these impressions will be
corroborated or corrected by J. W. Tibbie's more complete
edition. 20 It is now much easier to assess as well as enjoy the
Northamptonshire peasant, because this new collection of his
works, created out of Clare's own unedited MSS., enables the
student to examine his best poems (mostly from the earlier
nature poems and the c asylum lyrics ') in their proper setting.
We can appreciate the directness, vividness, spontaneity, and
simplicity of these verses and especially the way their author
handled his words so as to renew and prolong the rapture with
which Nature inspired him. The editor's short but studied
introduction does ample justice to these qualities, while recog-
nizing that there are some excellencies to which Clare could
not lay claim.

When turning from the poets to the prose writers, it will be
agreed that Jane Austen, 21 at any rate, has now been as clearly

18 The Letters of John Keats, ed. by Maurice Buxton Forman. 2nd
ed. with revisions and additional letters. O.U.P. pp. lxrx+561. 12&. M.

19 The Tear's Work, xii. 274.

20 The Poems of John Clare, ed. by J. W. Tibbie. Bent. vol. i,
pp. xxxii+569 ; vol. ii, pp. 567* 25s.

21 Jane Austen, by Lord David Cecil. Leslie Stephen Lecture. CJJJP.
pp. 43. Is. Gd.

326 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER

and enthusiastically appraised as any of the foregoing authors.
It is surprising how much Lord David Cecil can put into Ms one
hour's talk. At the first hearing or reading, it does not seem
that the critic has anything very new to say. He dwells on Jane
Austen's technical accomplishment and then on the absorbing,
searching interest she awakens in the mind ; he explains how she
is the last exquisite blossom 5 of that eighteenth-century habit
of mind which he terms the c moral realistic view '. That is to say,
she believes that we live only to be good, but that we can be-
come good only if we have sense and taste goodness means
good manners. Yet these impressions are expounded with such
wit, enthusiasm, and niceness of illustration that they force
themselves into their reader's mind as new and illuminating
truths and we feel that, if ourselves in doubt on any personal,
moral problem, we should follow the lecturer's example: we
should consult not Flaubert, Dostoievsky, Balzac, Dickens, or
even Tolstoi, but the subject of this discerning address.

A survey of this period can conveniently be closed by E. A.
Baker's History of the Novel, 22 since the sixth and most recent
instalment of this monumental work discusses Jane Austen
and Scott as well as Maria Edgeworth. While perusing these
carefully written pages the reader will probably feel that the
author's method and style are (in a good sense) old-fashioned.
Baker takes his novelist, tells the story of Ms or her life, reminds
the reader of Ms or her literary ancestors, then summarizes
and analyses the principal novels in chronological order. The
method is old-fasMoned in that nowadays one writes about
novelists as one writes novels ; that is to say, one re-creates a
character or personality in wMch the acMevements and ante-
cedents show up through the surface as parts of the finished
outline. An artist's career survives only in the final, composite
impression. TMs modernism is frequently very serviceable
because some authors' careers have been so often covered, and
Baker does not escape telling us many things wMch have been
told before. Besides, Ms style is so leisurely, Ms exposition so
explicit, and his quotations so numerous that he takes up much

2 * The History of the English Novel . . , Edgeworth, Austen, Scott,
by E. A. Baker. Witherby. pp. 277. 16*.

THE OTNETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER 327
space to make sure that every brick in Ms building is in the
proper place. On the other hand, his book is one of the most
helpful as well as authoritative guides to beginners ; and even
experts, if they find much they know, will find no little that
they have forgotten ; his scholarship is not in the least pedantic
and his style, like his mind, is admirably lucid.

(2) The Victorian Era

Amy Cruse's The Victorians^ is a most welcome introduction
to this period, all the more because it is unusual. The approach
is not through the mind of the authoritative and final critics,
still less through the lives and aspirations of the great authors,
but through the atmosphere of contemporary culture and
pseudo-culture. The poets, novelists, and essay-writers are
almost taken for granted. The real theme is the diaries, letters,
memorabilia, newspapers, and popular publications which reveal
the moods of the readers. So this book has long been needed
as a companion, not a substitute, for the standard histories
of literature. Yet the serious, or at least the exacting, student
will be a little disappointed, for he will find that Mrs. Cruse's
knowledge, though commendably wide, does not penetrate
deeply enough. She is so much influenced by the misjudgements
and superficialities of the Victorian public that she becomes
like it. For instance, she explains quite adequately the aspira-
tions of the early Victorians so much so, that her chapters on
the Oxford Movement, 'The Two Nations', and 'The New
Woman 5 are among her best ; but she misses the significance of
later Victorianism. She has no interest in the age of Meredith
and Samuel Butler; she is unconvincing on 'The Aesthetes'
and she closes her review in the 'eighties. Moreover, though she
quotes hundreds of authors, she rarely tells us where the
opinions are to be found, and most of her assertions are not
backed or corroborated by any authority or evidence. We must
take her conclusions on faith. In most cases the reader is
prepared to agree with her, but even so he misses something
access to those sources of information which she is to be
envied for possessing.

23 The Victorians and their Books, by Amy Cruse. Allen and Unwin.
pp. 444. 12s. 6d.

328 THE NINBTEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER

De Quincey can most conveniently be rated as a Victorian, so
this is the place to note M. Elwin's eminently readable mono-
graph, 24 which is rather too independent, in fact irresponsible, in
tone, but is stored with a quite unusual amount of information,
all of it lightly and effectively handled. The essay is avowedly
a 'life' not an appreciation, so the biographer confines himself
to the events of Ms author's career, or to the characteristics
which influenced those events or resulted from them a theme
quite inspiring enough in itself. Yet he has managed to con-
vey an unforgettable impression of De Quincey's other life of
imagination and mystic experience. Perhaps he is inclined to
forget that this dreamer of dreams was also an acute reasoner
whose grasp of, for instance, political economy is still respected.

To pass to dreamers of another world, we open E. M. Dela-
field's The Brontes^ and find that the biography is, as claimed
in the advertisement, c unique', in that it consists of retold
contemporary documents. These are all, or nearly all, known
to specialists (many are from Mrs. GraskelTs Life) and have
already been rehandled and recast by subsequent biographers,
and therefore a discussion of their importance does not come
within our scope. It is enough to say that this compilation
creates a curious atmosphere of reality. The personalities seem
more alive and more of a piece precisely because they are each
reflected in a diversity of opinions. They become as varied and
many-sided as life ; and besides, the student has the documents
before him and can judge for himself; especially if he supple-
ments this evidence with EL E. Wroot's researches 26 into the
sources of the novels.

The reader will also welcome M. H. Shackford's introduc-
tion 27 to two literary figures familiar to all by name but
strangers to most in their writings. The essay on Mrs. Browning

24 De Quincey, by M. Elwin. Great Lives. Duckworth, pp. 144. 2$.

25 The Brontes: Their Lives recorded by their Contemporaries, with an
Introduction by E. M. Delafield. The Hogarth Press, pp. 274. 8s. 6d.

26 Sources of Charlotte Bronte's Novels ', Persons and Places, by H. E.
Wroot. The Caxton Press for the Bronte Society, pp, 214. 5s.

27 M. B. Browning, JR. H. Home: Two Studies, by M. H. Shackford.
The Wellesley Press, pp. 75. 75 cents.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER 329

is a discussion of Aurora Leigh, combining a very clear account
of the poem with an examination of the conditions out of which
the poem developed its tone and tendency, drawing attention
to the many novels (in French as well as English) which
coloured Mrs. Browning's mind, and emphasizing her sense of
humour, her plea for the liberty of women and the influence
exercised on her mind by Mme de Stael (Corinne), G. Sand,
and, of course, Robert Browning. The essay on R. H. Home is
no less informative. Besides a picturesque and sympathetic
sketch of his life and a review of his friends (all interesting
elements in the Victorian scene), Miss Shackford discusses her
author's dramas with scholarly insight as well as interest. She
is particularly interesting on Gregory VII, the most ambitious
and the least read of his tragedies.

There is not much work on Tennyson worth recording, for
D. Bush 28 has chosen in his essay on the classical poems a theme
too big for the limited space at his command. Nor need we
spend much time over H. Law-Robertson's essay on Walt
Whitman 29 in Germany, part of which deals with German
translators (J. Schlaf at their head) and the other part with
the German ideas and aspirations which (as Law-Robertson
admits) admirers insisted on discovering in Leaves of Grass.
Thus the monograph is of more interest to students of German
than of English literature, except in so far as this foreign cult
brings out the remarkable features of the American: his demo-
cracy which meant humanity ; his monism and nature-worship ;
his dream of a superman which encouraged Germans to identify
his gospel with Nietzsche's; his war-spirit; his expressionism.
Thomas Mann's admiration is an interesting side-light.

Nor can one feel more than passing interest for Boz: an
Intimate Biography? though the life-story and the 'Intimate

28 The Personal Note in Tennyson's Classical Poems, by D. Bush.
Univ. of Toronto Quarterly, vol. iv, no. 2.

29 Walt Whitman in Deutschland, von H. Law-Robertson. Giessener
Beitrage zur deutschen Philologie, xlii Giessen. pp. 91. RM. 3.50.

80 Boz: an Intimate Biography of Charles Dickens, by J. C. Boannan
and J. L. Harte, with character sketches by M, H. Boarman. Boston:
The Stratford Co. pp. iii-f 234. $2.00.

330 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER

Word-Sketches of Dickens's Important Characters' are alike
performed with, genuine appreciation amounting to devotion.
They contribute nothing new to the study of the novelist.

The letters addressed to Mrs. Gaskell which repose in the
John Rylands Library and have now been edited by Miss R, D.
Waller 31 would seem to promise more, till one remembers the
novelist's incurable passion for autographs which inspired her
to exact letters from correspondents who had nothing parti-
cular to write about. A few of the notes arise out of biographical
events, as, for instance, the publication of Mary Barton, but
the majority, though interlinked by the editor's commentary,
are interesting only as specimens of nineteenth-century episto-
lary style.

We get something more solid in Susanne Howe's life 32 of
Geraldine Jewsbury. The heroine was not a great writer.
Neither her essays nor her novels really deserve to live. Miss
Howe knows as much and has confined her very considerable
ability to the telling of a life-story, founded on facts, but none
the less fascinating as a romantic comedy. Such is its value to
students of literature. Miss Jewsbury was erratic, impulsive,
and irresponsible. She also had talent and personality, so she
mixed with the great Victorians, and her letters and memora-
bilia are so many indispensable streaks in the background on
which the giants move. As the biographer remarks in the
Epilogue, 6 We may fit all the pieces together, but the real essence
of Victorianism eludes us. We shall never quite find our way
back into Miss Jewsbury's world, and in this lies the secret of
its fascination. We can never quite leave it alone. ' Miss Jews-
bury exhales this atmosphere, she is important in the study of
what we might call secularism.

The same is true of Dickens's letters to his wife. 33 These

31 Letters addressed to Mrs. Gaskell by Celebrated Contemporaries, now
in the possession of the John Bylands Library, edL by R. D. Waller.
Manchester Univ. Press, pp. 70. 2s.

32 Geraldme Jewsbwry. Her Life and Errors, by Susanne Howe.
AHen and TJnwin. pp. xv+236. 10s.

a * Mr. and Mrs. Charles Dickens. His Letters to Her 9 with a Foreword

THE NINETEENTH CENTUEY AND AFTER 331
documents, wMch Mrs. Dickens was anxious to preserve as a
proof that her husband once loved her, and that the estrange-
ment was due to no 'fault 5 of hers, were eventually consigned
to the British Museum in a sealed packet not to be opened till
all the family were dead. They contain the raw material of
a domestic drama which began as comedy and ended as some-
thing like tragedy. As such, they have a certain value for future
biographers, especially the appendixes, but otherwise we need
not pry into the secrets of hearts. Their real significance lies
in all the sights and sounds which the novelist records and
recounts to his wife those odd, out-of-the-way touches of
Victorian life which are so difficult to catch and mean so much
to the student of that age.

The latter half of the nineteenth century brought with it
many searchings of heart and inward experiences which found
more or less inadequate expression in letter-writing. Among
those who tell to their friends and not to the public the story
of that period, G. M. Hopkins is now beginning to attract much
attention, and so C. C. Abbott's volumes of his correspondence
will appropriately close this review. The letters addressed to
Robert Bridges 34 will be the first to be read. With the help of
the Introduction, they create a most curious portrait, the mind
of an absolutely sincere Christian who began his career as a
sensitive and rather sensuous boy-poet in revolt against every-
thing; who went up to Balliol in 1863, at the time of Oxford's
second religious ferment, and gradually passed 'from the doc-
trines of Pusey to the Roman Catholic Faith', and who hence-
forth was always divided between the worship of God through
Jesuitism and through poetry. His character seems to have
been so complex and responsive that he could never quite
reconcile the claims and duties of a priest with the self-devotion
and self-study of an artist ; his writings all aim at balance and
spiritual perfection and yet are generally discussed as experi-
ments in prosody, in the techniques of stress and of sprung

by their daughter Kate Perugini and Notes, Appendices, &e., by W.
Dexter. Constable, pp. xvii+299. 10s.

34 The Letters of Gerard Manley Hopkins to Robert Bridges, ed, by
C.C.Abbott. O.U.P. 2 vols. pp. xlvii+322. 30*.

332 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER

rhythm. Such Is the man revealed to us partly through
Bridges and partly through Abbott who draws their two por-
traits and incidentally makes some interesting comparisons
between Hopkins and the Metaphysical School, but mostly
through the letters themselves.

The correspondence of Hopkins with the Rev. R. W. Dixon 35
is in one sense even more curious, since it has brought to light
a figure who will one day be recognized as a member of the
immortals, however subordinate, and entitled to his own
edition of 'Works ', complete with introduction. It is fascinating
to watch the interchange of critical and aesthetic ideas which
emanates from this interchange of letters. But it should be
borne in mind that the two correspondents were brother poets
and churchmen who hardly ever met, but exchanged poems
and criticisms. The Introduction, which reviews the work of
Dixon, is admirably scholarly though perhaps just a trifle too
academic for so modest a poet, who saved himself from routine
by writing a church history in six volumes and by composing
poetry which won Mm no sort of recognition, except from
Hopkins and Bridges.

35 The Correspondence of Gerard Manley Hopkins and Richard Wateon
Dixon, ed. by C. C. Abbott. O.U.P. 2 vols. pp. xxxi-f 591. 30*.

XIII

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER

II
By EL V. BOUTH

THE twentieth century surely began with Samuel Butler,
though he died at its dawn, and J.-B. Fort's elaborate studies 1
are even less unmistakably a product of our age. They demon-
strate the extremes of specialization and neo-scholasticism.
Butler is after all a very secondary figure in our literary scene,
and conspicuous for his inconspicuous, pedestrian style. Yet his
mannerisms are anatomized with an industry, patience, and
technical efficiency such as Shakespeare or Milton would exact.
The critic promises to trace Butler's otherwise inconsiderable
eccentricities of manner to his imitativeness, early education,
and instinctive reactions. He does, indeed, remind us that
Butler's literary psychology was a mixture of timidity and
assurance and that although he professed never to write except
when the ideas clamoured for expression, yet he took endless
trouble with his compositions (as some interesting reproductions
of manuscripts and galley-proof demonstrate). But there is
little in the volume which really reveals the mentality of this
eccentric figure. In exchange, we have a demonstration of
French post-graduate methods: a scientific analysis of punctua-
tion, vocabulary, syntax, imagery, repetitiousness, and some
generalizations on his different styles which are divided into
familiar, philosophical, and narrative. However, the inquiry
is excellently documented.

So with the other much bulkier volume which examines
Butler's character and intelligence. We follow the details of
his life from the earliest family influences to the rather mys-
terious causes of his last illness and death. We examine the
success and failure of his books ; the qualities of his friends ; his
irony, satire, critical ability, and philosophical position; his

1 Samuel Butler. ISficrwain: $tude d*un Style, by J.-B. Fort. Bor-
deaux: Biere. pp. 146. Samuel Butler (1835-1902): $tude &un Caractere
et d*une Intelligence) by J.-B. Fort. Bordeaux: Biere. pp. 515.

334 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER
conception of money, gentlemen, life, and of Darwin ; how far
Ms mind was Victorian ; how far anti-Victorian. Fort has cer-
tainly covered all the ground, especially the letters, which are
admirably documented and profusely quoted. Now and then
he strikes on an interesting idea or original view, as for instance,
the suggestion that monasteries and pictures aroused Butler's
curiosity because of son flair pour les enigmes ; or that his theory
of Shakespeare's sonnets was really inspired by his own ad-
miration for Pauli which ended in disillusionment; how the
death of his father in 1895 enlarged, without breaking, the
continuity of Ms career ; how he belonged to the pre-Baconians,
to the school of philosopMcal apriorisme, whereas he was born
in the golden age of observation, experimentation, and statistics.
But for the most part, Fort is content to say everytMng at
length and without discrimination; very useful to French
students quite unfamiliar with the material, but not for most
of us.

As a contrast to tMs prolix treatment, the reader should
glance at H. Davis's article, 2 wMch is as adequate as one can
expect from an essay wMch tries to be comprehensive and
condensed. The critic gives a good idea of Butler's scientific
position, and of Ms attitude to society and morals (based on
that position), and suggests that the man who prepared the
way for the 'twenties has remained unpopular because he was,
after all, a Bloomsbury Mghbrow.

If Butler helped to renew English culture by reviving older
methods of thought, Charles Doughty tried to hasten that same
rebirth by reviving older forms of speech. The author of
Arabia Deserta, and The Dawn in Britain was a Victorian in
that he revolted against the insipid verbosity of Victorian
literature. He became an author because he was bent on
asserting the nervous energy, the purity of English at its best,
unsullied by nineteenth-century associations. Such is the aspect
under wMch Miss Treneer 3 presents tMs lonely but imposing

2 Samuel Butler: 1835-1902, by H. Davis. Rpt. Univ. of Toronto
Quarterly, vol. v, no. i, pp. 16.

3 Charles M. Doughty: a Study of his Prose and Verse, by Anne
Treneer. Cape. pp. 350. 10*. 6dL

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER 335

figure. She enters most thoroughly into his aims and methods,
pointing out that Chaucer, more often than Spenser, was Ms
model ; examining the rhythms of his prose, and the metrical
systems of his poetry, not omitting to give very readable
descriptions of all his works, with illustrative excerpts. She is
probably at her best in the study of Doughty's vocabulary (at
which the general reader shudders), but all her judgements are
well worth while, for she recognizes the defects of her author,
though inclined to insist on his qualities. He wanted freedom ;
perhaps too much freedom for the genius of the language ; but
he succeeded in composing poems which are ' closed systems',
that is, compositions which subsist on their creator's enthusiasm,
which do not depend on any adventitious interest. In one
rather interesting passage she believes or at least hopes that
in the immediate future books like C. D. Lewis's A Hope for
Poetry will number Doughty with Wilfred Owen, G. M. Hopkins,
and T. S. Eliot as an ancestor of the new poetry. So altogether
Miss Treneer is likely to send many readers to Arabia Deserta
and The Dawn in Britain, unless they find in her book all that
need be known about its subject.

Some of her conclusions can be tested in B . Fairley 's selections, 4
which embrace seventy excerpts, mostly short, to illustrate the
qualities which the reader may expect in the complete poem.
There is no attempt to represent the range and scope of the
epic. The Introduction dwells on Doughty's "radical feeling
for the unit of speech, Ms concrete apprehension his thing-
sense of the isolated world ? , and draws attention to his kin-
ship with the technique and artistry of G. M. Hopkins.

Prom Doughty to EL James seems at first to be a far cry ; yet
not so far, in one sense, since the novelist and man of society
was as deeply in earnest about his art as was the traveller and
poet. Both were purists in their own individual ways. Such is
the impression left by James's Prefaces which R. P. Blackmur
has now collected, 5 and which have for some time been recog-

4 Selected Passages from ''The Dawn m Britain 9 of Charles Doughty,
arranged with an Introduction by Barker Fairley. Duckworth, pp. xxi+
110. 3s. 6d.

6 The Art of the Novel: Critical Prefaces by Henry James, with an
Introduction by R. P. Blackmur. Scribner. pp. xxxix+348. 10s. &L

336 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER

nized as classics, of which the student needs no appraisement.
The Introduction, which analyses and reviews the different
types of preface, will be especially welcome in that it puts the
reader into the right mood leads Mm to expect that he is
about to enter into the art of life.

It is, however, something of an experience to pass to Myrtle C.
Henry's John Trevena* The value of this thesis largely depends
on the value to be attached to E. G. Henham, who wrote
dreamy and thoughtful novels, or rather, studies in human
affinities and spiritual intuitions among troubled and care-
crossed mortals on a Dartmoor background, and, as such, may
still figure in the history of the twentieth-century novel. Miss
Henry certainly knows how to tell the history of his mind and
art and to give a scholarly explanation of his mysticism,
idealism, and natural scenery.

One is less confident about Antfumy Hope and Ms Books. 7
Hope was not a great novelist. Both he and his Mends knew
his limitations and sometimes doubted whether it was prudent
or even commendable to forgo a career at the Bar or in Parlia-
ment, merely to earn a living by fiction. Yet the life-story of this
suave and successful creator of 'prose de societe' might have
become an interesting commentary on Edwardian culture if
only the biographer had made the most of his opportunity.
But the expectations of the reader will be disappointed, though
Sir Charles Mallet is an historian of Oxford, an authority on the
life of Herbert Gladstone, heads a chapter with "Oxford in
the 'Eighties', and promises to recount the initial difficulties of
a young author of fifty years ago. On the other hand, the
student a little tired of the calamities of authors, and of the
gladiatorialism of post-Victorian times, will enjoy a blessed
holiday among the triumphs and successes of this c compleat
gentleman' of the older regime, who began life as a barrister,
then cautiously drifted into fiction, and always cultivated the

6 John Tr&vena: a Study, with Special Eeference to the Romantic
Elements in his Work, by Myrtle Catherine Henry. Philadelphia, pp. 127.

7 Anthony Hope and his Books: Being the authorized Life of Sir Anthony
Hope Hawkins, by Sir Charles Mallet. Hutchinson. pp. 290. IBs.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AITEB 337

self-knowledge and contemplative calm of Marcus Aurelius and
made 70,000 in ten years.

The reader can then pass on to Richard Jefferies, who sought
the same spiritual ends by very different means. E. F. Daglish 8
first recounts and then with his selections illustrates how
Jefferies learnt to love nature on a Wiltshire farm and after
many a rebuff conquered the London public with his studies of
birds, animals, flowers, and the open-air; how he ended in
creating out of wild life a philosophy by which a town dweller
may Eve and even bear to die a death of slow disease.

One of the outstanding events of the publishing year con-
cerns an author who had something in common with all these
last four authors John Galsworthy, whose Life and Letters 9 is
now before us. This exhaustive compilation is not so much
written by H. V. Marrot as by all the letter writers whose
correspondence he has so industriously collected, including
those of Galsworthy himself. Of course the biographer tells
the story of his boyhood and youth, and of the years of obscur-
ity, and keeps a guiding hand on the accumulating mass of
documentation ; but in other respects he has the judgement to
efface himself, no doubt realizing that it was a big enough
achievement to call this richly illustrated volume into life. As
a consequence, its pages have a wide appeal for the general
reader who likes to know everything about a very prominent
author, for instance, how far the elder Forsytes are copied from
Galsworthy's relatives ; how long he had to wait before he could
marry the woman he loved so dearly through all his life; or
the moment when his books began to pay, after being published
for ten years at a loss. The biography will also appeal to
students of the twentieth century who want to know how far
this author influenced Churchill in the reform of prisons, or in
what terms he wrote to his contemporaries about the suffra-
gettes, or worried over the Great War. For the student of

8 Out-of-Doors with, Richard Jefferies, ed. by E. F. Daglish. Beat,
pp. xvi+264. 3s. Qd.

9 The Life and Letters of John Galsworthy, by H. V. Marrot. Heine-
maun, pp. xv-j- 819. 21s.

2762.16 y

338 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER
literature the most interesting letters are those from fellow
craftsmen (especially E. V. Lucas, Edward Garnett, Gilbert
Murray, and above all Conrad), applauding or criticizing his
earlier efforts. For instance, the reader should look out for
the discussion as to whether Bosinney should be killed or
commit suicide ; whether the landed aristocracy was the kind
of subject which Galsworthy understood; how Justice rises
above our earthly muddles into the super-terrestrial world of
divine governance (as Sophocles and Gilbert Murray would
say) ; how The Roof compares with The Skin Game. Above all,
the book presents Galsworthy as the humanist rather than the
humanitarian, the artist trying to gather together his impres-
sions and sculpture them in the true human outline, to get a
bird's-eye view of the situation which embraces all causes and
consequences, not the one-sided departmental idea derived from
individual contacts.

As far as he was a conscientious artist, Galsworthy was akin
to George Moore, whose biography was to have been written
by Charles Morgan. That project has been abandoned because
he was denied access to a body of letters which are indispensable,
and the Life has finally passed into other hands and will be
discussed next year. Morgan, however, being unable to write
a biography, has written an Epitaph or, rather, a portrait, of
no small value to all students of modern literature. It is the
'story of a man who made himself because he imagined him-
self', and in every novel tried to repress a certain foolish,
flashy, and superficial trait in his nature, the instinct of an
-outwardly ineffectual man about town, and to lay the founda-
tions of his artistic life. He tried to rescue and re-create his
intellectual personality by self-discipline and literary crafts-
manship. So he passed from life to life, at each stage pursued
by his dead self which would not die. At the age of fifty-one
he was still stumbling. Then he published The Untilled Held
(1903) and The Lake (1905), under the influence of Turgeniev,
and these two efforts opened to him a new artistic life, though
the battle of self-creation had still to be fought anew each day.

10 Upita/ph on George Moore, by Charles Morgan. Macmillan, pp. 56.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER 339

Despite this vitality which, culminated in genius, Moore has
never been popular in England because (in Morgan's opinion)
he is always considered to be too 'French 5 , that is to say, he
sees everything especially a woman with the eye of a con-
noisseur. Some critics, for instance Susan Mitchell, accuse
him of being 'unspirituaP. Morgan retorts that no man can
be such who is fanatically dedicated to an immaterial end,
and Moore's life was devoted to one achievement, e a construc-
tive simplification of prose narrative 5 , and in his work we
detect 'a disciplined fluency that belongs to a new voice in
literature 5 .

George Moore was, as every one knows, an Irishman, and at
about the age of forty he came to Dublin and offered himself
as a champion of the Gaelic Revival. Every one who has dipped
into Hail and Farewell also knows how he quarrelled with his
fellow adventurers and finally abandoned the enterprise. But
during that period he formed a friendship with John Eglinton,
who has now published his reminiscences 11 of the movement.
The essay on George Moore is one of the best, and besides
creating some idea of his personality, gives several glimpses of
his artistic aims, but like the other studies on Yeats, A. E.,
Dowden, and Joyce the tone is too personal and descriptive
to serve as more than a relaxation to the reader.

We return to a much more serious and professional mood in
George Gordon 5 s inaugural lecture 12 at Oxford on modern
poetry. The address is of unusual interest and importance.
He traces the present movement back to pre-War days 1912
if not earlier with Bridges and Yeats for pioneers. Since then,
the leaders of the younger generation seem to have been first
G. M. Hopkins and T. S. Eliot; then W. EL Auden, Stephen
Spender, and Day Lewis ; and the Professor of Poetry is delight-
fully witty and concise in his review of what these poets and
their followers have attempted and achieved. Possibly he is
at his best, or at least most helpful, when describing Eliot's

11 Irish Literary Portraits, by John Eglinton. Macmillan. pp. 158.
5s.

12 Poetry and the Moderns, by George Gordon. O.TLP. pp. 33. 2s.

340 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTEE
method: Ms fundamental traditionalism, disguised beneath a
new art of abrupt contrasts and transitions between the fair
and foul of modern civilization, and an almost psychical sug-
gestiveness, which the reader is apt to miss. Yet somehow
Gordon seems unable to make up our minds for us, or indeed
to have quite made up his own. He certainly thinks that all
contemporary poets claim to be more original than they are, and
that all, if less subversive, are more intolerant than is desirable.
One of his best points is Ms emphasis on the specialism of tMs
age: the lack of catholic taste and ideals, the contraction of
interest to certain personal problems (for instance, view-points
and prosodic methods) with the result that neither readers nor
writers seem able to like anything very much without violently
disliking everything else.

The Oxford Professor of Poetry speaks of T. S. Eliot with
a certain reserve, but no such sense of responsibility weighs
upon F. 0. MattMessen, 13 who interprets the same poet by the
light of the very modernists. In fact the cMef value of the
monograph lies in the author's sense of contemporary culture.
Thus he brings out well the necessity for concentrating on the
rhythm and movement of a poem, wMch often penetrate far
below the conscious level of thought and arouse deeper feelings
than words can express, and meanwhile the mind gradually
furnishes itself with the information required to understand
the verbal import. Yet the centre of value does not rest in
the poet's feelings. Again and again the critic insists that we
must not look so much for the artist's emotions as for the
pattern wMch he makes of them, the 'intensity of the artistic
process, the pressure, so to speak, under wMch the fusion takes
place'. At the same time he admits that every great artist
acMeves a certain reading of his age its weakness and horror,
but also its potentiality for goodness, truth, and courage, even
a vision of their transfiguring glory. These doctrines are ex-
pounded to explain the pre-eminence of T. S. Eliot, and
MattMessen certainly does well to emphasize Ms poet's eye for
the essential detail ; Ms artistic purpose in Ms sudden contrasts

13 The Achievement of T. S. Eliot: an Essay on the Nature of Poetry,
by F. 0. MattMessea. O.U.P. pp. xvi+160. Is. 6cL

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER 341

and transitions of thought ; Ms love of interplay between the
regiilarity and irregularity of metre; above all his cult of
auditory imagination. He also does good work in interpreting
as well as quoting some of Eliot's most perplexing enigmas. It
is also worth while to follow him in his study of Eliot's debt to
Baudelaire and Arnold. But the reader will do well to remember
that this study is a piece of special pleading and rather diffuse
and repetitious at that.

As in the discussion of Eliot, so in Fabre-Luce's La Vie de
D. H. Lawrence, 14 ' the events of his career are narrated only so
far as they aided or obstructed the growth of his spirit. The
book is a biography of a mind. Even his novels are mentioned
only as fugitive illustrations. The biographer exercises his craft
as would an artist. He begins with a portrait of the man's
character and appearance, or, rather, of his personality. Then,
of course, he reviews his home and unhappy youth, in which
the future novelist first learnt to live as an insurgent against
all the imprisonments of society. Then comes a notable chapter
on Lawrence's experiences as a lover; especially his idea of
love as an act of nature, as something deeper than the intellect,
a relationship in which physical contact was to lead eventually
to the fusion of two souls in a state of spiritual calm. Then we
follow the effect of the Great War on his mind ; then his project
of organizing a 'free society', which ended in ridicule; then his
quest of spiritual freedom, in isolation, as he wandered from
one Continent to another. The critic, who several times com-
pares his author to Nietzsche, makes perhaps too much of
Lawrence's inspiration. Does Ms genius really prefigure the
dawn of a more spacious and purer religion ? But he is surely
justified in leaving us with the impression that we have none
of us yet the wisdom to learn to the full the art of living nor
had D. H. Lawrence.

These monographs bear witness to the interest taken in
contemporary literature; the more collective studies, like
Gordon's, are even stronger evidence. For this reason the

14 La Vie de D. H. Lawrence, by Alfred Fabre-Luce. Paris : Grasset.
pp. 220. 12 fr.

342 THE NINETEENTH CENTUBY AND AFTER

lectures 15 on recent developments delivered at the University
of Sydney are worth considering. It is significant that none of
the three lecturers is dazzled by these modernists. In fact they
regard each manifestation as a passing phase, not to be taken
too seriously ; an ebullition, enigmatic only because there is no
answer to the riddle. However, A. J. Waldock gives a refresh-
ingly succinct and intelligible idea of Ulysses, R. GL Howarth an
excellent explanation of Miss SitwelTs e sense-confusion', and
E. J. Dobson a clear-cut statement of T. S. Eliot's position.

The academic mind seems to attribute modern iconoclasm
and eccentricity to a streak of wilfulness in the character of
these experimenters, but a quite different explanation is offered
by Stephen Spender. His spirited, contentious, inconclusive,
and therefore disappointing book 16 lays the responsibility on
civilization. Modern capitalism cannot supply the spiritual
experiences the hopes, beliefs, aspirations, goodness, and self-
fulfilment which the creative artist must have if he is to
project his spirit into the world around him. Consequently our
most receptive and expressive writers either seek their material
in their own inward consciousness, maintaining as little contact
as possible with their uncongenial environment, or they assert
their artistic integrity by taking this material in both hands
and re-creating it in all its true horror and vulgarity ; or again,
they attempt to create the communistic world which should
supplant it. Whatever their purpose, their thought has an
undercurrent of political as well as social pre-occupation. This
explanation of twentieth-century disillusionment may have
much to recommend it Matthew Arnold would have agreed
when writing about Gray but before the argument can become
effective the critic must get close to facts. Is c the destructive
element ' due to lack of faith or lack of ability ? The answer is
doubtful, and any solution must depend on a carefully docu-
mented and comparative study of the history of culture, in-

15 Some Recent Developments in English Literature : Lectures on James
Joyce, Edith Sitwell, and T. S. Eliot. Sydney: Australasian Publish-
ing Co. pp. 54.

16 The Destructive Element: A Study of Modern Writers and Beliefs,
by Stephen Spender. Cape. pp. 284. 8$. 6d.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER 343
volving many other and different sources than the writings of
Karl Marx. Spender shirks these issues. Not that Ms essay
is superficial. On the contrary his head seems to be the
meeting-place and maze of modern ideas, including the latest
psychology of aestheticism, and medical pathology. Moreover,
he has acquired a remarkable insight into the mentality of his
authors, and the significance of their imagery. But his mind
lacks historical perspective and has not yet the cunning to
reshape, simplify, and co-ordinate his ideas.

His most helpful chapters are those on Henry James, for
which he had the assistance of others. In these pages he argues
that James was not so much the admiring chronicler of the
leisured and moneyed upper class, as an artist who strove to
create and sustain an organic pattern of life, to substantiate
a dream of what culture could and should be. His career was
a protest against the philistinism and money-worship of that
polite society, which drove any sensitive and sensible man to
create an 'inward organ of life', as an escape from the spiritual
death around him. Such is Spender's stimulating but question-
able interpretation, and he supports his thesis by the evidence
to be derived from the drafts of The Ivory Tower and The Sense
of the Past. 'To grasp the whole pattern, to breathe all the
excitement and to follow all the difficult yet urgent thematic
arguments, one has to read these notes/

Meanwhile a prominent novelist of much greater experience
has produced a much more comprehensive review which is
almost as disappointing as Spender's. P. Swinnerton's Pano-
rama might have been excellent. There is no need to deplore
the critic's journalistic scope and method ; he has long acquired
the habits of a literary annalist and he is therefore enabled to
write with a nearness and power of observation, with an air of
actuality, most welcome, if rare, in literary studies. He seems
to be living with the men and women he labels, and most of
them are personally known to him. Above all, he really has
felt the change which began to creep over style and sentiment
from the Boer War onwards. No reader can doubt that he has

17 The Georgian Literary Scene: a Panorama, by Frank Smnnerton.
Heinemann. pp. x+548. 12s. 6d.

344 THE 1 NINETEENTH CENTUEY AND AFTER

held Ms finger on the pulse of Grub Street. Thanks to this
awareness, his chapters on James, Conrad, A. E. Housman, and
D. H. Lawrence are especially noteworthy, and he makes a
good point when he insists on the novelist's difficulty (e.g.
Galsworthy's) in identifying himself with personages outside
his own class, unless poverty, at some time or other, has washed
off his haH-mark. Yet however much the reader may enjoy this
comprehensive review, he will miss a comprehensiveness of
judgement, and this defect vitiates the book. It seems that
Swinnerton, in his horror of pedantry and his zeal for the ideal
of the plain man, has fallen a victim to the plain man's self-
consciousness. In order not to be a second Matthew Arnold, he
has forgotten Arnold's principle of detachment. He keeps to
his subject ; but he writes as if the reader's eye were focused
on him.

Can the student find anywhere, this year, a review or intro-
duction which will suit his needs? Probably not in A. R.
Reade's Main Currents which begins with Kipling and ends
with Mary Webb, is admirably lucid and sound, but too elemen-
tary and full of quotations for any but beginners. The most
satisfying compilation is the revised and enlarged Survey 1 *
which Harrap has published. The 110 pages of criticism are
almost a masterpiece of concentration free from compression.
Only a trained eye can detect the volume of contemporary
observation and study condensed into these abbreviated
generalizations. For instance, it is remarked of Bridges's The
Testament of Beauty: c in loose but subtle Alexandrines he at-
tempted to synthesize a strongly Platonic reading of life with
the increment of knowledge due to modern science'. Con-
sciously or not, the authors of the Survey follow Fehr 20 in
describing 'The Background 3 , and assess the individual writers
by the light of their artistic achievements and adhesion to the
literary forms which seem to be best adapted to the present

18 Main Currents in Modern Literature, by A. R. Reade. Nicholson
and Watson, pp. 223. te. Qd.

19 Contemporary British Literature: a Critical Survey and 232 Anchor-
Bibliographies, by F. B. Millett. 3rd edition, revised and enlarged, by
J. M. Manly and E. Rickert. Harrap. pp.xi+556. Ws. 3d.

20 See The Tear's Work, xv. 332.

THE NINETEENTH CENTUEY AND AFTER 345
stage of culture. They judge by a high standard; in fact their
attitude is best implied by the pronouncement on English
criticism. 'There is little or no awareness of schools or the
significance of creeds ; instead, critical individualism, occasion-
ally of a very high, but more frequently of a low and trivial
order flourishes.' The reader will gather that these Americans
are perhaps too much inclined to take the tangled morass of
book-production and to rule it out into an ordered territory.
The struggling, thrusting adventurers are regimented into
platoons and squadrons. We are not helped to feel their
individual vitality, except by the picking out of their faults.
This perhaps inevitable defect is unmistakable in the pregnant
and lucid Critical Survey, even more so in their admirably
documented Contemporary British Bibliography which might
serve as a model for the next abridgement of the D.N.B.

If the reader is disconcerted by modern disillusionment, he
will find some answer in R. Shafer's study of Paul Elmer More, 21
or at any rate an idea of the depth and width of the problem.
Shafer's doctrine is much the same as Arnold's. He holds that
self-knowledge is different from scientific knowledge; that it
consists in a progress of discoveries and cannot be valid unless
accompanied by a sense of continuity, and the perception that
an immense succession of great minds has travelled the same
ground and has made the same or similar discoveries. 'Human
experience is the only absolute with which we are acquainted.'
Over all the conflict and interplay of thoughts there is an
'inward check' which the spirit can exercise the proof of the
soul's reality. It is literature which reflects this inner reality,
4 opening up lines of communication with the past and establish-
ing principles which have endless possibilities of further
development and extension'. Such was the ideal which governed
Paul More's life. He stood for the true art and philosophy of
criticism: the study and control of thought, the perception of
our kinship with the past and our affinity to the future with its
new knowledge and changed conditions. Shafer also tells us
something of More's career: his early academic life, his retire-

21 Paul Mmer More and American Criticism, by Robert Shafer.
Yale Univ. Press and O.TJ.P. pp. ix-f 325. ig 5 .

346 THE NDDETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER
ment to Shelburne, his journalistic activities, above all, the
gradual growth of his mind from his early experiments to The
Shelburne Essays and then on to The, Greek Tradition. All this
philosophy and biography are to be found in the book, and much
more, not, however, clearly and succinctly put forth, but em-
broiled with controversy and aspersions on contemporaries, and
other such matters which do not concern us.

Another thinker whose work has contributed towards the
preservation of culture is the late C. H. Herford, as we learn
from Lascelles Abercrombie's funeral oration. 22 It was Hertford's
genius to penetrate and grasp the international element in the
literature he criticized, that is to say, not the influence of one
author or another, but the wave of thought which possessed
European culture at any given epoch and permeated works of
art, otherwise so different in form and language. Thus Descartes
was akin to Shakespeare, thanks to c that infinitely complex,
perpetually changing, yet perfectly continuous tradition, in
which the genius of each particular nature lives and works in
its own particular way 3 . Herford was not the creator of inter-
nationalism ; the idea was proclaimed by the German romantics,
and continued through the nineteenth century ; but it is well
to remember in what guise he revived the tradition and in-
sisted on it.

The survey of books in this section might be concluded not
by looking backward but forward, and we get at any rate a
hint of future movements in Poems of Tomorrow The reader
will form his own opinion of these 'young' verses, produced
during the last five years, but whatever his final impression may
be, he will agree with the editor that poetry should be an ever-
changing pattern, playing on the sentiments with varying lights ;
that novel thoughts need novel expressions ; that the best litera-
ture is often that which needs to be read more than once.

22 Herford and International Literature, by Lascelles Abercrombie.
Manchester Univ. Press, pp. 21. Is.

23 Poems of Tomorrow: an Anthology of Contemporary Verse chosen
from 'The Listener*, ed. by Janet Adam Smith. Chatto and Windus.
pp. xii+135. 5s.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER 347
In addition, the following articles have to be noted in the
survey of 'The Nineteenth Century and After'.

In Rev. Ang.-Amer. (Aug.) Sainte-Beuve et Us poetes roman-
tiques anglais, by E. M. Phillips ; (Feb.) Les 'Juvenilia' de Jane
Austen, by Leonie Villard; The Scholar Gipsy, by E. K. Brown.

In The Library (June and Sept.) The Early Nineteenth-Century
Drama, by R. C. Rhodes.

In The Quarterly Review (Oct.) Robert Browning's 'Paracelsus',
by F. S. Boas.

In R.E.S. (Jan.) The Date of Coleridge's 'Kubla Khan', by Sir
E. K. Chambers.

In S. in Ph. (Oct.) Coleridge as Champion of Liberty, by C. R.
Sanders; (July) A Probable Paracelsian Element in Shelley, by
E. Ebeling.

In P.M.L.A. (March) The Relation of Coleridge's 'Ode on
Dejection' to Wordsworth's C 0de on Intimations of Immortality*,
by F. M. Smith; Scott's . . . Use of the Supernatural, by M. C.
Boatright ; Lytton's Theories of Prose Fiction, by H. H. Watts ;
(June) The Significance of ( Lamia', by J. H. Roberts; (Sept.)
Carlyle and the German Philosophy Problem, 1826-7, by H. Shine.

In M.L.B. (Jan.) Prester John in Coleridge's 'Kubla Khan',
by F. J. Warne.

In P.Q. (Oct.) Unreconciled Opposites in Keats, by R. D.
Havens.

In T.L.S., Jan. 17, A Letter of Charlotte Bronte, by M. L.
Parrish ; March 28, Jane Austen's Two Conjectures, by 0. H. T.
Dudley ; Aug. 29, Beddoes's German Poems, by H. Bergholz ;
Oct. 10, Arnold's 'Dover Beach 3 , by C. B. Tinker.

In Essays and Studies, vol. xx, The Writings of W. H. Hud-
son, by R. H. Charles.

In Essays by Divers Hands, vol. xiv, Plato and Ruslcin, by
W. R. Inge ; The Plays of Mr. Noel Coward, by St. John Ervine ;
Mark Twain, by Anthony Deane ; James Thomson and Ms * City
of Dreadful Night 9 , by N. Hardy Wallis.

XIV
BIBLIOGRAPHICA

By HABBY SELLERS

THE outstanding bibliographical publication of the year is
P. Simpson's Proof-Reading in the Sixteenth, Seventeenth, and
Eighteenth Centuries?- an imposing collection of valuable docu-
mentary material on a little-known subject, set forth with wide
and exact scholarship and a keen sense of literary values. The
argumentative part is the first chapter, where Simpson proves
with ease from contemporary references what has until recently
been denied (notably by the editors of The Cambridge Shake-
speare in relation to the printing of the First Folio), that
authors did revise their proofs in the early days of printing,
often attending in person while the press was at work. The rest
of the book is a mass of illustrations, from archives and official
and other sources printed and manuscript, of conditions in the
printing-house during the period covered. In the chapter
headed 'Early Proofs and Copy", full descriptions with fac-
similes are given of extant examples of corrected proofs, and the
many knotty problems which they present are discussed with
penetrative sagacity. Chapters follow on 'Correctors of the
Press' and c The Oxford Press and its Correctors', packed with
detail as to salaries and academic qualifications, records of
individual correctors, printers' bills for books famous and
otherwise, while the last chapter is enlivened by an amusing
account of the long battle between Dr. Fell and Anthony a
Wood over the printing of the Latin version of the History and
Antiquities of the University of Oxford, in which Fell and his
translator altered, inserted, or omitted passages at their pleasure.
Simpson's copious citations from the 'learned' and other
languages, joined to the meticulous accuracy of modern biblio-
graphy, must have added considerably to the labour of printing
this tall and handsome volume, which has been achieved in the
Oxford University Press's best manner.

1 Proof-Reading in the Sixteenth, Seventeenth, and Eighteenth Centuries,
by Percy Simpson. O.U.P. pp. vii-f-251. 2 5$.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC! 349

T. Besterman's Beginnings of Systematic Bibliography 2 is
produced uniformly with. Simpson's work. Though the subject
is not so novel nor so difficult, nor the wealth of learning lavished
on it so great, yet there is no doubt that the early bibliographies,
including such works as the voluminous publications of Conrad
Gesner, Bale's Summarium and Catalogus, and Andrew Maun-
sell's Catalogue of English printed BooJces, were well worth listing
and describing, and Besterman has done this adequately and
lucidly. Systematic bibliography, it should be said, means the
compilation of lists of books, and is distinguished from critical
bibliography, the study of the make-up of particular volumes.
Besterman's work is a catalogue raisonne of early book-lists, in
various languages and on various subjects, from the auto-
bibliography of Claudius Galenus, written in the second century,
first printed in 1525, to the end of the seventeenth century.
There is very little relief in the shape of biographical information
from the lengthy enumeration of titles of books, and the excel-
lent facsimiles which accompany the text will not be so practi-
cally useful as the chronological List of Bibliographies printed
to the end of the sixteenth century which forms Part II, and the
Index which concludes the whole.

R. A. Brewer's The Delightful Diversion* is yet another cheery,
breezy book from the States on the ever more and more popular
subject of book-collecting. It has been written especially for the
beginner with small knowledge and limited finances, and con-
tains information of a quite elementary standard, but sound
and practical, on a large range of subjects such as * Identifying
the First Edition ', 'First and Second Issues 7 , 'Presentation
Copies', 'Association Copies', 'The Private Presses', 'English
Illustrators ? , c Fine Bindings ', and ' Buying and Selling' . No one
can quarrel with such maxims as that 'the two prime requisites
of collectible things are rarity and desirability', or that 'sell-
ing at auction is always a gamble ', and one is glad to hear that

2 The Beginnings of Systematic Bibliography, by Theodore Besterman.
O.U.P. pp. xi 4-81. 11$.

3 The Delightful Diversion: the whys and wherefores of book collecting,
by Reginald Arthur Brewer. Illustrated. New York: Macmillan. pp.
viii+320. 125. 6dL

350 BIBLIOGEAPHICA

owing to the financial depression Americans have 'abandoned
the empty, expensive pleasures of the easy-money days ', so that
'good reading has again become a hobby in the American
home 3 . Sweet are the uses of adversity. But owing to Brewer's
preoccupation with modern, including contemporary American
authors, the scholarly element in the book is slight.

Graham Pollard, in his Introduction to I. E. BrusseFs Anglo-
American First Editions, 4 describes the book as 'the first step
towards a bibliography of American literary piracy 5 , and pro-
. ceeds to explain, by means of a short and lucid sketch of the
history of Copyright in England and America, how it came to
pass that such important English books as The Woman in
White, Barry Lyndon, The Picture of Dorian Gray, and (in com-
plete editions) The Last Chronicle of Barset and The Confessions
of an English Opium Eater were first published in the United
States. The novelty and surprising nature of the facts revealed
may be readily supposed. Among other documents quoted is a
careful and very business-like letter from Wilkie Collins to his
publishers, and a half-humorous complaint by Thackeray about
the reprinting of some of his early work. A large number of
books by twenty-six nineteenth-century writers of high rank
are listed in Brussel's bibliography, and sufficiently detailed
descriptions are given of most of the books, with dates of their
first publication in England whether as wholes or incomplete or
in periodicals. Eight facsimiles are included.

The Second Part of R. A. Peddie's Subject Index^ consists of
additional titles with many new subject-headings and covers an
extra year. It is a bulky volume, larger than its predecessor,
cross-references to which occupy a good deal of its space, so that
it is necessary to use both volumes conjointly. Between them
they contain 100,000 entries, a very remarkable number con-

4 Anglo-Atnerican First Editions, 1826-1900. East to West. Describ-
ing first editions of English authors whose books were published in
America before their publication in England. By Isidore Rosenbaum
Brussel. With an introduction by G. Pollard. Constable, pp. xvi+170.
11*.

5 Subject Index of Boolcs published up to cmd including 1880, Second
Series, A-Z, by Robert Alexander Peddie. Grafton. pp. xv+857.
10 10*.

BIBLIOGRAPHICA 351

sidering that they are the work of a single compiler, and they
cannot fail to be of great usefulness to students. But the appear-
ance of this very large collection of additions to the original
volume justifies us in asking how much nearer we are to any-
thing like exhaustiveness.

Among articles in The Library* having reference to English
literature the following may be mentioned here : Ruth Hughey
in The Harington Manuscript at Arundel Castle and related
Documents (Mar.) describes her recent discovery of a sixteenth-
century anthology of verse, containing 324 poems, collected by
John Harington and his son, Sir John. Among the poems, one-
third of which have never been published, are many of those
usually ascribed to Wyatt and Surrey, and others that appeared
among the 'Uncertain Authors' in Tottel's Miscellany. The
manuscript was used by Henry Harington in the eighteenth
century for his editions of the Nugae Antiquae, and in 1814 by
G. F. ISTott for his edition of the Songs and Sonnets. Since that
time it has been considered lost. Miss Hughey also describes
two groups of related documents which are generally unknown.

Giles E. Dawson, in An Early List of Elizabethan Plays (Mar.),
describes a common-place book by Henry Oxinden (1608-70)
now in the possession of the Folger Library, which contains
a list, compiled about 1665, of 123 plays which presumably
formed part of Oxinden's library. Dawson gives the complete
list of plays, sixty-two of which are dated and are mainly first
editions earlier than 1610 (see above, p. 203). In Shakespeare
and the Reporters (Mar.) W. Matthews devotes a long and
detailed technical argument to proving that the bad quartos
of Richard III, Henry F, Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, and The
Merry Wives cannot be shorthand reports made by either
Bright J s system of 'Characterie* or Peter Bales's 'Brachy-
graphy 3 , as certain scholars have recently suggested.

In an interesting paper on Jonathan Swift and the Four Last
Years of the Queen (June) Harold Williams tells the surprising

6 The Library (Transactions of the Bibliographical Society). New Ser.
vol. xv, no. 4 vol. xvi, no. 3. O.U.P. 5$.

352 BIBLIOGEAPHICA

fortunes of the manuscript of Swift's work, publication of which
was delayed, apparently for political reasons, from its com-
pletion in 1713 till 1758, more than twelve years after the
author's death. The first edition, which was printed in London
by Andrew Millar, and reprinted in Dublin by the Ewings, did
not appear without serious disputes between Millar and
George Faulkner, the Dublin publisher, as to ownership of the
manuscript, which seems to have existed in several copies.
Faulkner issued his own edition under a different title and from
a different manuscript. Williams goes into the question as to
which manuscripts were used by the two publishers and their
relative reliability, and is able to dispose once for all of any
doubt as to the authorship of the work by drawing attention to
a manuscript in Windsor Castle which bears corrections in
Swift's own handwriting.

In The Early Nineteenth-Century Drama (June and Sept.)
the late R. Crompton Rhodes described a large collection of
part-books and prompt-books which were in his possession,
and which had been formerly in the library of the old Theatre
Royal, Birmingham. They enabled him to make many addi-
tions and corrections, here set out with facsimiles, to the hand-
list of Plays in Allardyce NicolTs History of Early Nineteenth-
Century Drama.

Gordon S. Haight in The Sources of Quarles' s Emblems (Sept.)
surveys the indebtedness of Quarles to two emblem books by
Jesuit priests, Pia Desideria, 1629, and the Typus mundi, 1627,
and to the 1563 edition of Thomas Hibernicus's Flores Doctorum,
an anthology of the Fathers. The debt to the Jesuits concerns
mainly the engravings, which Quarles had to have copied from
their originals owing to the inability of English artists to invent
suitable designs. The text of his poems is more original, but his
extracts from the Fathers are practically all borrowed.

Gordon Crosse, in Charles Jennens as Editor of Shakespeare
(Sept.), writes a brief but bright appreciation of this little-
known eighteenth-century editor of Xing Lear, Hamlet, Mac-
beth, Othello, and Julius Caesar, whose eccentric vanity pro-
voked ridicule which robbed him of the praise due to his indus-

BIBLIOGRAPHICA 353

try in * faithfully collating the text line by line with the old as
well as the modern editions' and his courage and energy in
commencing his editorial labours at the age of seventy.

In The Publication of Smollett's Complete History and Con-
tinuation (Dec.) Lewis M. Knapp describes the methods by
which Smollett's publishers made a financial success of his
History ', which included ' presenting' a fourth volume of the
first edition to purchasers of the first three volumes and issuing
the second edition in sixpenny weekly numbers. Knapp also
accounts for the rarity of the fifth volume of the Continuation,
1765, by telling how it was bought up and destroyed by the
court owing to its reference to George Ill's madness.

Edith C. Batho, in Notes on the Bibliography of James Hogg,
the Ettrick Shepherd (Dec.), sets out the additions and correc-
tions to her bibliography which have been accumulating since its
publication in 1927. Finally, Arno L. Bader, in Captain Marryat
and the American Pirates (Dec.), supplies an important chapter in
the history of British and American publishing by relating
Marryat's vigorous efforts to obtain a share in the profits of
American editions of his works, efforts which included taking
legal proceedings in a vain attempt to stop the pirating of
Snarleyyow, and helping in various ways the cause of inter-
national copyright during his visit to the States from May 1837
to November 1838.

The fifteenth volume of the Modern Humanities Research
Association's Annual Bibliography 1 * contains some minor
changes in the arrangement and numbering of the sections,
calculated to increase the practical usefulness of the work. The
German contribution has been unusually large this year, and
has helped to swell the total number of entries to 4,711.

A satisfactory number of interesting and important books
have been acquired by the British Museum's Department of
Printed Books during the year. In October the Friends of the

7 Anmtal Bibliography of English Language and Literature. Vol. xv,
ed. by Mary S. Serjeantson, assisted by Leslie N". Broughton. Cam-
bridge: Bowes and Bowes, pp. ix-j-296. 75. 6c.

2762.16 z

354 BIBLIOGRAPHICA

National Libraries presented a copy of the first edition of
Erasmus's Moriae Encomium (undated, but probably 1511), a
small quarto volume of great rarity, which was published at
Paris in two issues, with the printers' marks of Gilles de Gour-
mont and Jean Petit respectively. The present copy is of the
first issue, and is the first of either issue to be possessed by a
public library in this country. The book has a definite connexion
with England : it was written by Erasmus while a guest at Sir
Thomas More's house in Bucklersbury in 1509, and was seen
through the press by Eichard Croke, a young English student
then in Paris, who afterwards taught Henry VIII Greek and
became a well-known scholar.

Sir Leicester Harmsworth presented a copy of Memorable
Conceits of diuers noble and famous personages of Ohristendome
of this our moderne time, printed for James Shaw, London, 1602,
of which only one other perfect copy is known. It is a transla-
tion of Gilles Corrozet's Les Diuers Propos memorables des
Nobles <& illustres hommes de la Ghrestiente, 1556, a collection of
moral tales and apophthegms which includes the story of the
Jew, the debtor and the pound of flesh, incorporated in Shake-
speare's Merchant of Venice. The publisher's preface dedicates
the book to 'Maister Walter Rawleigh', the nine-year-old son
of the famous Sir Walter.

Mr. W. A. Marsden, the Keeper of the Department, has pre-
sented a copy of the first edition of William Bullein's A Dia-
logue both pleasaunt and pietifull, wherein is a goodly regimente
against the feuer pestilence, printed by John Kingston, London,
1564, only one other copy known. This Dialogue, which was
a very popular work in its day, and is referred to by Nashe in
Eaue with you to Saffron Walden, is described by the Dictionary
of National Biography as combining 'passages of exalted elo-
quence with humorous anecdotes and sharp strokes of satire'.
The Department acquired by purchase in October a copy of Sir
Isaac Newton's De mundi systemate liber, 1728, the first edition
of the original form of the third book of the Principia; and
Summarie and short meditations touching sundry poyntes of
Christian religion gathered by T. W. [probably Thomas Wilcox],

BIBLIOGEAPHICA 355

printed for George Byshop, London, 1580, only one other copy
recorded.

Finally, a number of rare books were presented at different
times by Mr. Arthur Gimson, of which the following may be
mentioned: The BoJcefor a Justyce of the Peace, W. Middilton,
Londini, [1544], only one other perfect copy known; Paruus
Libellus (Carta Feodi), W. Mydylton, 1545, one other copy
known ; The Maner of kepynge a Court Baron & a Lete, W.
Middilton, 1547, only known copy; This is a true copy of the
ordynaunce made in the tyme of the reygne of Jcynge Henry the vi.
to be obserued in the Kynges Exchequier, by the offycers and clerkes
of the same, E. Redman, London, circa 1541, only recorded
copy ; A true Eeporte of the taking of the great towne and Castell of
PolotzJco, by the King of Polonia, London, 1579, a very early
news-tract, only known copy, with a fifteenth-century woodcut
of London used to represent Polotzko; and Gervase Mark-
ham's A Way to get Wealth : Containing the Sixe principall voca-
tions or callings, in which everie good Husband or House-wife may
lawfully imploy themselves, N. Okes for J. Harrison, London,
1631, only two other perfect copies recorded.

The most important accession to the Department of Manu-
scripts in the sphere of English literature was a large collection of
manuscripts of Samuel Butler, the author ofErewhon, presented
by his literary executors, Dr. Geoffrey Keynes and Mr. Brian
Hill. The Museum already possessed the manuscripts of
Erewhon, Erewhon Revisited, and The Way of All Flesh. The
present donation consists of (1) Butler's general correspondence,
1841-1902, bound in sixteen volumes; (2) Copies in Butler's
hand of his correspondence with Miss E. M. A. Savage ; (3) The
autograph manuscript of Life and Habit, volume 2, intended for
a sequel to Life and Habit, 1878; (4) Copy B. of the Note-Books,
in six volumes ; (5) The printed edition of the Note-Books, 1912,
annotated by Festing Jones ; (6) A volume of newspaper cut-
tings taken by Butler; and (7) Festing Jones's memoir of
Butler, 1920, with annotations.

Another interesting accession was the papers of the Wyatt
family, deposited in the Museum for the use of students by the

356 BIBLIOGRAPHICA

Earl of Romney . They are mostly in the hand of George Wyatt,
gr,andson of the poet, Sir Thomas, but were put together by
Richard Wyatt in 1727. They have been long known and occa-
sionally used, but never completely published nor exhaustively
studied. The most interesting part is a series of eight articles
concerning the relations between Sir Thomas the poet and
Anne Boleyn: these have been partly published. There are two
copies of The Life of the virtuous Christian and mourned Queene
Anne Boleigne, An account of Anne Bullerts coming to Court,
and a large quantity of other historical material connected with
the doings of the Wyatt family from the sixteenth to the
eighteenth century.

It is difficult to select from the considerable number of old
or rare printed books acquired by the Bodleian Library, but the
following are perhaps most worthy of mention: Daniel's Poeti-
call Essayes, 1599; Defoe's Complete English Tradesman, 1727,
second edition of vol. 1, first of vol. 2 ; Baxter's Cure of Church-
divisions, 1670, Christian Directory, 1678, second edition, and
Treatise of Knowledge and Love compared, 1689 ; John Maltbey's
A Grand-fathers Legacy, or Maltbey's morsels for mourners, 1633,
one other copy recorded; Bartholomew Parsons's The Magis-
trates Charter examined, 1616, one other copy recorded ; Thomas
Playfere's The Side-mans couch, 1605, one other co$y recorded;
Fuller's Antheologia, or the speech of flowers, 1655, and Ornitho-
logie, or the speech of birds, same date ; J. Abernethy's Christian
and Heauenly Treatise containing physicke for the soule, 1615,
one other copy recorded ; Coleridge's Fall of Robespierre, Cam-
bridge, 1794; Dryden's Prologue spoken at Mithridates, 1681,
and Prologue to the DuTce of Guise, 1683 ; T. Heyrick's Miscellany
Poems, Cambridge, 1691 ; Milton's Brief History of Moscovia,
1682; Pope's Essay on Criticism, 1711; Prior's Erie Robert's
Mice, 1712, The Dove, 1717, and The Turtle and the Sparrow,
1723; Scott's Waverley, Edinburgh, 1814, and Vision of Don
Roderick, Edinburgh,, 1811, author's copy; Colley Gibber's The
Rival Fools, 1709; J. Dennis's Remarks on Mr. Pope's Rape of
the Lock, 1728; John Hughes's Poems on Several Occasions,
1735 ; Robert Dodsley's Rex et Pontifex, 1745 ; W. Guild's Ignis
fatuus, or the df-fire of Purgatorie, 1625, three other copies

BIBLIOGRAPHICA 357

known ; William Perkins's Treatise of Mans Imaginations, 1607,
one other copy recorded ; and John Tutchin's Poems on Several
Occasions, 1685.

The most interesting manuscript accession of the year con-
sists often autograph letters of Philip Bliss, the editor of Wood's
Athenae, whose life and works were the subject of a masterly
study by S. Gibson and C. J. Hindle published in 1933 and
noticed in vol. xiv of The Tear's Work. These letters, which are
addressed to various correspondents and illustrate Bliss's
literary activities including his editorship of the Oxford Herald,
which he undertook in 1835 in order to save the paper 'from
falling into the hands of the Low Radicals' range in date from
December 1813 to May 1857. They were recently acquired by
Mr. J. P. R. Lyell and handed over to the Bodleian. Another
manuscript which should be mentioned is a collection of letters
of Mary Russell Mitford to Serjeant Talfourd, 1826-36.

The National Library of Scotland has added to its collections
of printed books a creditable number of works written by Scots-
men, printed in Scotland, or dealing with Scottish matters, with
some others. The following may be named here: R. A. Scott
Macfie presented Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun's A Discourse of
Government with relation to Militia's, Edinburgh, 1698, Two Dis-
courses concerning the Affairs of Scotland, Edinburgh, 1698, and
Discorso delle Cose di Spagna, Napoli, 1698 ; William Ruff pre-
sented Sir Walter Scott's Poetical Works, eight volumes, Edin-
burgh, 1822; and R. A. Hellewell Catulli, Tibulli et Propertii
Opera, printed by Baskerville, Birmingham, 1772. Purchases
include George Buchanan's Ane Admonition Direct to the trew
Lordis mantenaris of the Kingis Graces Authoritie, R. Lekprevik,
StrivUing, 1571 ; Andrew Logie's Cum Bono Deo. Eainefrom the
Clouds vpon a Choicke Angel, E. Raban, Aberdeen, 1624; John
Kennedie's Historie of Calanthrop and Lucilla, I. Wreittoun,
Edinburgh, 1626, two other copies recorded; The Answer of the
Convention of the Estates, E. Tyler, Edinburgh, 1643 ; Articles
and Ordinances of Warre, E. Tyler, Edinburgh, 1643 ; The True
Intelligence concerning the Taking of New-Castle, E. Tyler,
Edinburgh, 1644; Thomas Shepheard's The Sound Beleever, G.

358 BIBLIOGRAPHICA

Lithgow, Edinburgh, 1658; Laws & Articles of War, E. Tyler,
Edinburgh, 1667; Dryden's The Medall, Edinburgh, 1682; Sir
George Mackenzie's Jus Begium, London, 1684; Jonas Philolo-
gus's Dialogi aliquot Lepidi ac Festivi, G, Mosman, Edinburgh,
1692 ; James Wallace's Description of the Isles of Orkney, J. Reid,
Edinburgh, 1693; Thomas Tenison : s Sermon preached at the
Funeral of Queen Mary, Heirs of A. Anderson, Edinburgh,
1695 ; Sir David Lindsay's Works, Heirs and Successors of A.
Anderson, Edinburgh, 1709, and 1716; Allan Eamsay's Scots
Songs, Edinburgh, 1719, second edition; John Morgan's Poem
on the Taylor Craft, R. Brown, Edinburgh, 1733; Hume's
Philosophical Essays concerning Human Understanding, London,
1748 ; the Wc^eAat of Aristophanes printed by R. and A. Foulis,
Glasgow, 1755 ; and a Spanish translation of Scott's Antiquary,
El Anticuario, in five volumes, Barcelona, 1834. The most
important manuscript accession was the original manuscript
of The Heart of Midlothian, presented by Miss J. G. C. Topham
of Middleham House, Yorkshire. It had come into the posses-
sion of her great-grandfather, Alexander Cowan, by gift from the
Creditors of Archibald Constable & Co.

The year has been a somewhat uneventful one in the book-
market. On 5 March a set of the four Shakespeare Folios, the
property of the Massachusetts General Hospital, was sold at
Sotheby's to W. H. Robinson of Pall Mall for 3,100, the com-
paratively low price being accounted for by the fact that the
copy of the First Folio lacked both the title-page and leaf of
verses, and had six leaves supplied from a slightly smaller copy.
Leigh Hunt's copy of the Second Folio, 1632, realized 165 in
July, and a copy of the Third Folio, second issue, 1664 the
first issue to contain the seven additional (and apocryphal) plays
600 in August.

The first collected edition of Chaucer's Workes, 1532, printed
by Thomas Godfray, edited by W. Thynne, sold for 365 in July.
Other sixteenth-century books which, changed hands during the
year included North's Plutarch, 1579, the rare first issue of the
first edition, 90; Churchyard's Worthinesof Wales, 1587, 58;
Whetstone's English Myrror, 1586, 30 ; Hakluyt's Principall

BIBLIOGRAPHICA 359

Nauigations, voiages and discoueries of the English nation, 1599-
1600, 3 volumes, second edition, second issue of vol. i, 41 ;
Sidney's Apologiefor Poetrie, 1595, 120 ; Reginald Scot's Dis-
couerie of Witchcraft, 1584, 20; Florio's Firste Fruites, 1578,
and Second Frutes, 1591, together 47 ; Spenser's Colin Clouts
Come Home Againe, 1595, 65, and Complaints, 1591, 72 ; and
Thomas Watson's Amintae Gaudia, 1592,, 40,

At the sale in November of Lieut.-Colonel W. Keith Bollo's
collection of books relating to angling, a set of early editions of
Walton's Compleat Angler sold as follows : a fine copy of the
first edition, 1653, in a modern binding, 510 ; second edition,
1655, 140 ; third edition, 1661, with 1664 title-page, 40 ; fourth
edition, 1668, 36 ; fifth edition, 1676, 19. Another copy of the
second edition, with the title in facsimile, fetched 10 10$. in
March.

Other seventeenth-century books sold during the year in-
cluded Cervantes's History of Don-Quichote, 1620, Shelton's
translation, second edition of vol. 1, first of vol. 2, 26 ; Milton's
Of Education, 1644, only five other copies recorded, 122,
ElKovoK\dar>r)$, 1649, 5, History of Britain, 1670, 4, and
Paradise Lost, 1667, first edition, second title-page, with
Paradise Regairid, 1671, together 145 ; William Browne's The
Shepheards Pipe, 1614, 7 5s.; Samuel Daniel's Certaine Small
Poems lately printed, 1605, 9 105., Certaine Small WorJces hereto-
fore divulged, 1611, 3, and Works newly augmented, second issue,
1602, 2 18s.

Eighteenth-century works worth mentioning were Defoe's
Fortunate Mistress (Roxana), 1724, 75, Farther Adventures of
Robinson Crusoe, 1719, with folding map and eleven pages of
advertisements at the end, 31, and Memoirs of a Cavalier, 1720,
4 10$. ; Goldsmith's Retaliation, 1774, 64; Mandeville's Fable
of the Bees, 1714, first issue, 14 10s.; Gay's Poems on Several
Occasions, 1720, 4 4$. ; Beckford's Thoughts on Hunting, 1781,
20; Fanny Burney's Cecilia, 1782, 9 15s.; Melding's Tom
Jones, 1749, six volumes, 60 ; Pope's Dunciad, Dublin, 1728,
the first Dublin edition and the first edition to bear Pope's name,
56; Smollett's Roderick Random, 1748, 19 10$., Peregrine

360 BIBLIOGRAPHICA

Pickle, 1751, 16, and Count Fathom, 1753, 22 ; the Kilmarnock
edition of Burns's Poems chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, 1786,
lacking title-page and otherwise imperfect, 72; Johnson's
Prince ofAbissinia (Easselas), 1759, uncut, in original wrappers,
305; Thomson and Mallet's masque Alfred, in which 'Rule
Britannia' first appeared, second edition, 1751, 41; Sterne's
Sentimental Journey, 1768, 138 ; Mrs. Radcliffe's The Italian,
1797, three volumes, 1 15s.; Swift's Complete Collection of
Genteel and Ingenious Conversation, 1738, 1 2s. ; SomerviUe's
The Glace, 1735, 4; White's Selborne, 1789, 12 10s.; and
Gibbon's Decline and Fall, 1776-88, six volumes, 21.

Among works of the period of the Romantic Revival the
highest price was paid for a copy of Shelley's Queen Mab, 1813,
uncut, in the original boards without label, which sold for 500
at Sotheby's in April. Other works of the period included
Shelley's Rosalind and Helen, 1819, 17, Loon and Cythna, 1818,
with blank leaf b 2 after the title and leaf of errata at the end,
original boards, 55, and Adonais, 1821, text cut round and
inlaid, 21; Wordsworth's Poems, 1807, two volumes, 5 10s.,
Waggoner, 1819, 2, Yarrow Revisited, 1835, 1 12s., and Grace
Darling, Carlisle, 1843, two leaves, signed at the end by the
author, unbound, 14; Coleridge's Ohristabel, 1816, wrapper,
45; Keats's Lamia, 1820, lacking half-title, rebound, 7,
Endymion, 1818, rebound, 20 10s., and another copy in
modern morocco, 16; Lamb's Adventures of Ulysses, 1808,
5 10s. ; Byron's Childe Harold, Cantos III and IV, 1816-18,
2; Samuel Rogers's Italy, 1823-8, presentation copy with
Wordsworth's signature, 2 ; Hazlitt's Lectures on the English
Poets, 1818, 1; and Southey's Joan of Arc, Bristol, 1796,
presentation copy to Anna Seward from the Ladies of Llan-
gollen, 1 4s., and Life ofNdson, 1813, two volumes, 1 8s.

Among nineteenth-century novelists Dickens and Surtees as
usual took up a great deal of room, though the most sensational
price was the 165 paid at Hodgson's on 30 October for a copy
of the first edition of Mrs. Henry Wood's East Lynne, 1861,
three volumes in the original purple cloth gilt, inscribed 'Ellen
Mary Wood from Mamma'. A copy of Dickens 's Pickwick
Papers, 1836-7, original nineteen to twenty parts, wanting adver-

BIBLIOGKAPHICA 361

tisements, brought 22, and another copy, bound, 14 105. ;
Nicholas Nickleby, 1838-9, wrappers, brought 10 105., A Christ-
mas Carol, 1843, coloured illustrations by Leech, title in red and
blue, 5, Great Expectations, 1861, three volumes, wanting the
advertisements, 2 45., Dombey and Son, 1848, 1 75. &d., Little
Dorrit, 1857, with the original wrappers bound in, 1 125. 6d.,
Martin Chuzzlewit, 1844, 1 55., and The Uncommercial Traveller,
1861, with author's signature on title, 14 105. Surtees's
Analysis of the Hunting Field, 1846, coloured plates by Alken,
fetched 16, Mr. Facey Romford's Hounds, 1865, coloured
plates by Leech and H. K. Browne, 2 85., Handley Cross,
1854, seventeen parts, original wrapper, 33, Hawbuck Grange,

1847, plates by Phiz, 4 45., and Hillingdon Hall, 1845, three
volumes, 44. Other novels included Thackeray's Vanity Fair,

1848, 2 55., Rebecca and Rowena, 1850, 1 55., Second Funeral
of Napoleon, 1841, 24, Henry Esmond, 1852, three volumes,
1 105., and The Newcomes, 1855, two volumes, 1 75. 6d. ;
Scott's The Abbot, 1820, 1; Stevenson's Kidnapped, 1886,
2 55., New Arabian Nights, 1882, 5 55,, Prince Otto, 1885,
4 55., and Dr. Jefyll and Mr. Hyde, 1886, 4 105.; Gissing's
Workers in the Dawn, 1880, 74; Jane Austen's Emma, 1816,
three volumes with the half-titles, 32 ; Mrs. GaskelTs Cranford,
1853, 21, and North and South, 1855, two volumes, original
cloth, 2 ; Trollope's$m<rfZ House atAllington, 1864, two volumes,
original cloth, uncut, 3 105. ; Butler's Erewhon, 1872, original
cloth, uncut, 4, and Erewhon Revisited, 1901, autographed
presentation copy, 4; and Samuel Lover's Handy Andy y 1842,
1 115.

Among poetical works of the period the following seem most
worth mentioning: Browning's Ring and the Book, 1868-9,
author's presentation copy to Matthew Arnold, 43, Men and
Women, 1855, two volumes, 2, and Straff ord, 1837, 2 165.;
Tennyson's In Memoriam, 1850, Anna SewelFs copy with her
signature, 2 105. ; Matthew Arnold's Strayed Reveller, 1849,
initialled by the author, 9, Empedodes on Etna, 1852, 2 55.,
and Poems, second edition, 1854, with author's manuscript
notes, 48 ; Whitman's Leaves of Grass, Brooklyn, 1855, the
scarce first edition containing only twelve poems, 28 ; George

362 BIBLIOGRAPHICA

Moore's Pagan Poems, 1881, with author's initials on title, 20 ;
Stevenson's Child's Garden of Verses, 1885, 12; Swinburne's
Atalanta in Galydon, 1865, uncut, 1 2s., and Poems and Ballads,
1866, 5 ; the Bronte sisters' Poems, 1846, 5 ; and Macaulay's
Lays of Ancient Borne, 1842, 2 16s.

INDEX

Abbott, C. C., The Letters of G. M.
Hopkins to Robert Bridges, ed. by,
331-2 ; The Correspondence of G. M.
Hopkins and R. W. Dixon, ed. by,
332.

Abercrombie, L., Herford and Inter-
national Literature, 346.
Abers, Jacob H., Scientific Rational-
ism in the 17th century, 263.
[Accessions to the Bodleian], 356-7.
[Accessions to the British. Museum],

354-6.
[Accessions to the National Library

of Scotland], 357-8.
Adries, Andre, Shakespeare et lafolie,

183.
Aiken, Pauline, Vincent of Beauvais

and Dame Pertelote, 112.
Alexander, Calvert, The Catholic

Literary Revival, 7-8.
Alexander, Peter, on a 'Pocket

Shakespeare', 186.

Allen, Don Cameron, A Note on 16th'
century Vernacular English Lan-
guage, 53-4 ; Hotspur's Earthquake,
194-5; 'The Anatomie of Absur-
ditie* . . ., 243.

Allen, Hope Emily, Influence of Super-
stition on Vocabulary . . ., 48 ; The
TorUngton Chartulary, 148 ; The
Three Daughters of Deorman, 148 ;
Dicing My and The Alchemist, 212-
13.
Allen, Ned Bliss, The Sources of John

Dryden's Comedies, 269-70.
Allen, B. J., Two Wycherley Letters,

269.

Allhusen, E. "L., A Swift Epitaph, 316.
Anders, Erika, see under Stahl, E. L.,

198.
Anderson, Paul B., Buckingham's

Chemist, 269.
Anonymous, Ghost Technique in

Shakespeare, 196.

Anonymous, 'Hamlet ' :A Query, 1 90-1 .
Arbuthnot, M.D., John, 294.
Atkins, S. H., 'Fortunio and Ray-
mundus ', 241 ; A Fig for Momus,
245 ; The Life and Death of Gamaliel
Ratsey, ed. by, 247.
Atkinson, Dorothy F., References to

Chaucer; Chaucer Allusions, 117.
Auden,W.H., Psychology and Art, 10;
with John Garrett, The Poet's
Tongue, 26-7.
Ault, Norman, Pope's Own Miscellany,

286-7; on Pope's editorship, 287;
Pope's Lost Sermon on Glass-Bottles,
316.

Avery, E. L., Research Studies of the
State College of Washington, 315.

B., C. W., Pope's Lost Sermon on Glass-
Bottles, 316.

Bader, A. L., The Modena Troupe in
England, 268-9.

Baesecke, Anna, Das Schauspiel der
engL Komodianten in Deutschland,
224.

Baker, E. A., The History of the Eng-
lish Novel . . . Edgeworth, Austen,
Scott, 326-7.

Baker, Howard, Ghosts and Guides:
Kyd's ''Spanish Tragedy'' and the
Medieval Tragedy, 209.

Baker, J. E., The Philosophy of Ham-
let, 185.

Bald, B. C., A MS. Work by Sir George
Buc, 247.

Baldwin, T. W., A Note upon William
Shakespeare's Use of Pliny, 196.

Banks, T. H., Sidney's 'Astrophel and
Stella' Reconsidered, 233.

Barnouw, A. J., How English was
taught in Jan van Houfs Leyden,
55; on the term 'Dutch*, 62;
Rasselas in Dutch, 316.

Bartlett, Adeline C., The Larger
Rhetorical Patterns in Anglo-Saxon
Poetry, 71-3.

Bartlett, Henrietta C., First Editions
of Shakespeare's Quartos, 187.

Barton, Mary N., see under Kennedy,
V. W., 320.

Baskerville, C. E.., Richard Mulcaster 9
242.

Batho, Edith C., Notes on the Biblio-
graphy of James Hogg, the EttricJc
Shepherd, 353.

Baugh, A. C., American Bibliography
for 1935, 30 ; Chronology of French
loan-words in English, 45 ; A History
of the English Language, 50-1.

Beattie, Lester M., John Arbuthnot,
Mathematician and Satirist, 292-4.

Beck, Egerton, Saint Thomas More
and the Law, 164.

Beckingham, G. G., 'Othello* and
* Revenge for Honour' , 191.

Begg, Edleen, Shakespeare's Debt to
Hall and Holinshed in ' 'Richard IIP,
194.

364

IOT3EX

Behr, "U., Wortkontamination in der

neuenglischen Schriftsprache, 46.
Belloc, Hilaire, Milton, 252.
Bennett, Josephine W. 9 Spenser's

'Fowre Hymnes*: Addenda, 240.
Bense, J. F., A Dictionary of the Low-

Dutch Element in the English Voca-
bulary, 38-9.
Bensly, Edward, Terentius Christi-

anus, 173.
Berendsohn, W. A., Zur Vorgeschichte

des Beowulf, 79.
Beresford, J., Passages from Wood-

f orders Diary of a Country Parson,

290.
Bergen, Henry, Lydgate's Troy Book,

Part IV, ed. by, 118-19.
Bergholz, H., Beddoes's German

Poems, 347.
Besterman, Theodore, The Beginnings

of Systematic Bibliography, 349.
Bethurum, Dorothy, The Connection

of the Katherine Group with O.E.

Prose, 149*
Bhattacherje, MoMnimohan, Platonic

Ideas in Spenser, 236.
Blackmur, B. P., The Art of the Novel:

Critical Prefaces by Henry James,

. . ., 335-6.
Blackwell, Basil, Provincial Book-

selling, 24.
Bloch, Bernard, Interviewing for the

Linguistic Atlas, 63.
Bloomfield, Leonard, Language, 60;

The Stressed Vowels of American

English, 64.
Blunden, Edmund, Edward Gibbon

and his Age, 299-300 ; An Essay by

Collins, 316.
Boarman, J. C., and Harte, J. Lu,

with character sketches by M. H.

Boarman, Boz: an Intimate Bio-
graphy of Charles Dickens, 329-30.
Boas, F. S., A Lost and Found Volume

of MS. Plays, 204; The Diary of

Thomas Crosfield, ed. by, 261;

Robert Browning's * Paracelsus ', 347.
Boas, Guy, The New Eversley Shake-
speare, ed. by, 195.
Boatright, M. C., Use of the Super-
natural, 347.
Bodkin, Maud, Archetypal Patterns in

Poetry, 14r-15.
Bodtker, A. Trampe, Arthur Brooke

and his Poem, 192.
Bois, A. E. Du, on Beowulf 1107 and

2577, 81-2 ; on Beowulf 489-490, 83.
Bond, R. Warwick, On Six Plays in

'Beaumont and Metcher, 167 9\

213-14.
Bongartz, Josef, Die deutsche Mund-

artforschung in ihrer Bedeutung
far den englischen Unterricht, 51.

[Book-Sales], 358-62.

Borgman, A. S., The Life and Death
of William Mountfort, 267-8.

Bosanquet, Eustace F., An Almanack
and Prognostication for the Year
1S98, ed. by, 227-8.

Botting, R. B., Composition of the
'Shepheardes Calender', 239-40.

Bowers, F. J., A History of Elizabethan
Revengeful Tragedy, 224.

Boyce, Benjamin, A Restoration 'Im-
provement' of T. DeJcker, 280.

Bradbrook, M. C., Themes and Con-
ventions of Elizabethan Tragedy,
199-200.

Braddy, Haldeen, on Chaucer's acct.
of 'Petro' of Cyprus, 111.

Bradner, Leicester, The Latin Trans-
lations of Spenser's 'Shepheardes
Calender', 240.

Brandl, Alois, Zur Quelle des 'Mac-
beth', 192,

Braun, Karl Otto, Die Szenenent-
fuhrung in den Shakespeare* schen
Historien. EinVergleichmitHolins-
hed und Hall, 194.

Brentano, Mary Theresa, Relationship
of the Latin Facetus Literature to the
Medieval English Courtesy Poems,
157.

Brewer, R. A., The Delightful Diver-
sion: the whys and wherefores of book
collecting, 349-50.

Brill, M. C., Milton and Ovid, 263.

Brittin, Norman A., on Discours
contre Machiavel [Simon Patericke],
246-7. See also Butler, K. T., 247.

Broadus, E. K., Polonius t 190.

Brock, J. H. E,, The Dramatic Pur-
pose of 'Hamlet', 176-8.

Bronson, Bertrand H., Chaucer's
House of Fame , , ., 95-6; In
Appreciation of Chaucer's Parle-
ment of Foules, 96-7.

Brooke, Iris, English Costumes of the
Later Middle Ages . . ., 157.

Brooks, Jnr., Cleanth, The Relation
of the Alabama-Georgia Dialects, to
the Provincial Dialects of Great
Britain, 62-3.

Brooks, E. St. John, on Peter Idley,
and the family of Drayton, 156.

Brooks, H., Some Notes on Dry den,
Cowley and Shadwell, 269; Attribu-
tions to Rochester, 273 ; When did
Dry den write *Mac Flecknoe'? . . .,
271; Attributions to Rochester? 273.

Brooks, J. L., Alexander Brome , . .,
224.

INDEX

365

Brown, Beatrice Daw, Exemplum
Materials underlying 'Macbeth', 192.

Brown, Carleton, Chaucer's ' Wrecked
Engendring', 92-4; the Biblio-
graphy of, 121; The Pardoner's
Me,ed.by, 101, 112-13.

Brown, E. K., The Scholar Oipsy 9 347.

Brown, Huntingdon, Harvard Studies
and Notes in Philology and Litera-
ture, 53. .

Brunner, Karl, Mittelenghsche Man-
enstunden, 133; Zwei G-edichte aus
der Handschrift, 133-4; Mitteleng.
Todesgedichte, 135; Ein typisches
Bu/3gedicht aus dem funfaehnten
JS 136.

Brussel, Isidore Rosenbaum, Anglo-
American First Editions, 1826-
1900, East to West ... of English
authors . . . published in America
before . . . England. With an
introduction by- G. Pollard, 350.

Bryant, Arthur, Samuel Pepys: The
Years of Peril, 274-5 j^TOe Letters,
Speeches and Declarations of King
Charles II, *d. by, 279.

Buchan, John, The Compleat Angler
[re-issued], 263.

Buck, Katherin M., on parallels to
the legend of T Gwr Blewog, 81.

Budd, F. E., Shakespeare, Chaucer and
Harmett, 191-2.

Bueno, Lillian de la Torre, Was
Ambrose Philips a Ballad Editor?,
314.
' Buhler, Karl, Sprachtheorie, . . ., 36-7.

Buliocke, J. G., Tomlinson Papers,
290.

Bullough, G., 'The Murder of Oon-
zctgo' : A Probable Source for l Hamlet',
190.

Burns, Bobert, Burns Chronicle and
Club Directory (has articles Letters
of and Concerning R. Burns, Corre-
spondence of John Syme and Alexan-
der Cunningham, Burns' sLastY ears,
*The Lochlie Litigation and the
Sequestration of William Burnes\
and * Louisa Fontendle, actress 1 .)
313. See also 315.

Bush, D., The Personal Note in
Tennyson's Classical Poems, 329.

Butler, Kathleen T., on Discours
contre Machiavel, 246-7, see under
Brittin, N. A., 246-7.

Butow, Hans, Das alteng. Traum-
gesicht vom Kreuz, ed. by, 78-9.

Byrne, M. St. Clare, The Mother of
Francis Bacon, 248.

Byrom, H. J., Some Lawsuits of
Nicholas Udall, 173.

Cain, H. E., Spenser's 'Shield of
Faith*, 238.

Caimcross, Andrew S., The Date of
'Othello', 191.

Camden, Jr., C., The Physiognomy of
Thopas, 108.

Cameron, Kenneth W., Coverdale's
Bible of 1535 and the Theory of
Translation, 168.

Campbell, Lily B., The Christian
Muse, 250.

Campbell, Mrs. 0. W., on a * Pocket
Shakespeare', 186.

Cargill, Oscar, The Langland Myth,
129-30.

Carswell, Catharine, Lollius myn
Autour, 99.

Carter, John, on Urne-Buriall's cor-
rections in autograph, 263.

Case, A. E., Pope, Addison, and the
'Atticus' lines, 315.

Cassidy, F. G., A Suggested Repunctu-
ation of a Passage in Beowulf
(7456-749), 83.

Cecil, Lord David, see under Williams,
Charles, 26; Jane Austen, 325-6.

Celenza, Guilia, see under Piccoli, B.,
195.

Chambers, Sir E. K., on the Latin
Vision of the Monk of Evesham,
150; see under Davies C., 150; The
Date of Coleridge's Kubla Khan, 347.

Chambers, B. W., Thomas More,
161-3.

Chambrun, C. Longworth de, with
Preface by Andr6 Maurois, My
Shakespeare, Rise/ Recollections of
John Lacy . . ., 197.

Chapman, George, character conven-
tions in comedy, 215-16; relation
to the psychology and physiology
of his day, 216.

Chappell, Edwin, The Tangier Papers
of S, Pepys, . . ., ed. by, 275 ; Pepys
and the Huguenots, *277 ; Pepysiana,
277.

Chappell, Louis W., Another "Canter-
bury Tale', 117.

Charles, R. H., The Writings of W. H.
Hudson, 347.

Charlton, H. B., Falstaff, 185.

Chaucer, Geoffrey, life, 114r-17, use of
rhetoric, 91-2; additions to the
canon ?, 92-4 ; Hous of Fame, 94-6 ;
Parlement of Foules, 96-7 ; T. and
C., 97-9 ; C. T.s, 99-105 ; Source of
'Melibeus' 109-10; Monk's Tale,
110-11; Pardoner's Tale, 112-14;
Bibliography, 117.

Chester, Allan Griffith, Thomas
Churchyard's Pension of 20d. 9 233.

366

INDEX

Child, Harold, The Shakespearian
Productions of John Philip Kemble,
196.

Christian, Mildred G., Middleton's Ac-
quaintance with the 'Merrie Con-
ceited Jests of George Peele\ 217.

Clark, Cumberland, Falstaff and his
Friends, 185.

Clark, G. H., The Dutch Influence on
the English Vocabulary, 45.

Clark, "W. S., Milton and the Villa
Diodati, 256.

Cofenan, George R., Note on the
Miller's Prologue, 107.

CoghUl, Nevill, Two Notes on Piers
Plowman, 131-2.

Coleridge, S. T., his life, and person-
ality, 319-21 ; bibliography, 321.

Collins, D. C., Battle ofNieuport, 1600 :
Two News Pamphlets and a Ballad,
ed. by, 228.

Collinson, W. E., see under Priebsch,
B., 64.

Collis, J. S., William Cobbett, 314.

Cook, Davidson, Popular Dramatic
Works ojf W. Shakespeare, 188;
Louisa Fontenette, actress, 313.

Cook, D., see under Grierson, H. J. C.,
324.

Cookson, George, Essays and Studies,
ed. by, 24.

Coulton, G. G., The Faith of Sir
Thomas More, 165.

Cowling, G. H., The Outline of English
Verse, ed. by, 27-8.

Craig, Hardin, Essays in Dramatic
Literature: The Parrott Presentation
Volume... ,Qd. by, 184-5, 216. Con-
tributions by, Harold R. Walley,
Hubertis Cummings, J. E. Baker,
Hardin Craig, Charles W. Kennedy.

Craigie, Sir W. A., A Dictionary of the
Older Scottish Tongue . . ., 38.

Crankshaw, Edward, Music, 11.

Crawford, O. G. S., Arthur and his
Battles, 141.

Cremer, R. W. Ketton, Thomas Gray,
296.

Cross, F. L.,see under More, P.E., 251.

Crosse, Gordon, Charles Jennens as
Editor of Shakespeare, 188, 352-3.

Crow, Martin Michael, Corrections in
the Paris MS. of Chaucer's C. Tales,
103-4.

Crundell, H. W., The Rugged Pyrrhus
and Hamlet, 190; on 'Too too
sullied Flesh*, 190; ANoteon'King
Lear 9 , 192; Shakespeare, Lyly and
Aesop, 196.

Cruse, Amy, The Victorians and their
Boobs, 327.

Cummings, Hubertis, For Shake-
$peare*s Hamlet, 185.

Curme, George 0., Parts of Speech and
Accidence, 31-2.

Curry, W. C., Macbeth' s Changing
Character, 192; Sacerdotal Science
in ... "The Tempest 9 , 193.

Curtis, Lewis Perry, Letters of Laur-
ence Sterne, ed. by, 283-4; Forged
Letters of Laurence Sterne, 315.

Daglish, E. F., Out-of -Doors with
Richard Jefferies, ed. by, 337.

Daniels, R. Balfour, Rhetoric in
Gower*s To King Henry IV, in
Praise of Peace, 118.

Davenport, A., John Weever's 'Epi-
grammes 1 and the Hall-Marston
Quarrel, 241.

David, Richard, The Janus of Poets:
. . . Dramatic Value of Shakespeare's
Poetry . . ., 179-80.

Davies, Constance, Beowulf s Fight
with Grendel, 81 ; The Revelation of
the Monk of Evesham, 150; see
under Chambers, Sir E. K., 150.

Davis, H., Samuel Butler: 1835-1902,
334.

Davis, Herbert, The Drapier's Letters
. . ., 285-6.

Dawson, Giles E., An Early List of
Elizabethan Plays, 203-4, 351.

Deane, C. V., Aspects of 18th Century
Nature Poetry, 309-10.

Dekker, A., On the Syntax of the Eng-
lish Verb from Caxton to Dryden,
54-5.

Delafield, E. M., The Brontes: . . . by
their Contemporaries . . . Introduc-
tion by, 328.

Delattre, Floris, ^Illusion emotion-
nelle dans Shakespeare, 182; Sur
BenJonson, 212.

Deutschbein, Max, DieBedeutungsent-
wicJclung von Road bei Shakespeare,
49, 195 ; Der rhythmische Character
der neuenglischen Bibelubersetzung
von 1611, 56.

D'Evelyn Charlotte, Peter Idley's
Instructions to Ms Son, ed. by,
155-6.

Dexter, W., Mr. and Mrs. Charles
Dickens. His Letters to Her, with a
Foreword by their daughter Kate
Perugini and Notes, Appendices,
&c., 330-1.

Dickins, Bruce, Latin Additions to
Place- and Parish-names of England
and Wales, 59-60; Kleinere Mitteil-
ungen, 85; Seynd Bacoun, 112; on
The Flyting of Dunbar and Kennedy,

INDEX

367

128; Worcester Fragments of the
M.E. Secular Lyric, 136; The
Rhyme-Schemes in MS. Douce 302,
53 and 54, 138 ; Eaveloch 64-6, 138 ;
on Mauris and his felowes, 150.

Dike, Edwin Berck, Obsolete English
Words . . ., 55.

Dobson, E. J. on T. S. Eliot, 342,

Dodds, M. H., A Lost Elizabethan
Play about Palamedes, 222.

Dormer, H. W., Thomas Lovell
Beddoes: the Making of a Poet,
323-4; The Browning Box: or the
Life and Works of T. L. Beddoes . . .
in Letters by his Friends . . ., 324.

Doran, Madeleine, The Quarto of ''King
Lear* and Bright? s Shorthand, 187;

and Greg, W. W., If You know

not Me, You Know Nobody, Parts
I and II, ed. by, 218-19.

Doren, Carl van, What is American
Literature?, 9-10.

Dorow, K.-G., Die Beobachtungen des
Sprachmeisters James Elphinston
uber die schottische Mundart, 51-2.

Doyle-Davidson, W. A. G., The Earlier
English Works of Sir Thomas More,
165.

Draper, John W., Ophelia and Laertes,
183; Lord Chamberlain Polonium,
183; Hamlet's Schoolfellows, 183;
Shakespeare's Italianate Courtier,
183 ; Usury in ' The M. of V.\ 183-4.

Drennon, Herbert, Newtonianism in
James Thomson's Poetry, 314.

Dryden, John, comedies, 269-70 ; , . .
as Historiographer-Royal, 271; re-
ligion, 271.

Dudley, 0. H. T., Jane Austen's Two
Conjectures, 347,

Durling, Dwight L., Georgia Tradition
in English Poetry, 310.

EbeHng, E., A Probable, Paracelsian

Element in Shelley, 347.
Eccles, Mark, Marlowe in Kentish

Tradition, 206-7.
Eckhardt, E., Robert Davenport's

Lustpiel, C A New Trick to Cheat the

Devil\ 222.
Edgar, Irving L, Shakespeare's

Psychopathical Knowledge . . ., 183;

Shakespeare's Medical Knowledge

. . ., 183.
Edwards, H. L. E., John Skelton: A

Genealogical Study, 168; Chapman

and Florio, 244.
Egbert, Donald Drew, on The Tewkes-

bury Psalter, 159.

Eglinton, John, Irish Literary Por-
traits, 339.

Eichler, Albert, Zu Chaucer, 'Canter-
bury Tales', General Prologue, 106.

Ekwall, Eilert, Some Notes on JSnglish
Place-names containing the names
of heathen deities, 59.

Eliason, Norman E., on Wulfhlib* in
Beowulf 1358, 84; on Everyman,
801, 155.

Elizabeth, Queen, and her times,
225-8.

EUis-Fennor, Una, The Imagery of
'The Revengers Tragedie* and ''The
Atheists Tragedy', 219-20.

Elson, J. J., The Non-Shakespearian
- 'Richard IP and Shakespeare's
'Henry IV \ Part I, 194, 221.

Elton, Oliver, The Nature of Literary
Criticism, 9.

Elwin, M., De Quincey, 328.

Eminson, T. B. F., The Place and
River Names of the West Riding of
Lindsey, Lincolnshire, 58-9.

Essays and Studies in English and
Comparative Literature, contribu-
tions by H. Whitehall, S. B. Meech,
and A. H. Marckwardt, 56-7.

Everett, A. L., A Note on Shake-
speare's ' Henry VI\ 193.

Ewen, Frederic, The Prestige of Schiller
in England, 12-13 ; Bibliography of
18th Century English Literature,
313.

Ewing, Fayette C., Hamlet . . . Psycho-
logic Study, 186.

Fabre-Luee, Alfred, La Vie de D. H.
Lawrence, 341-2.

Fairley, B., Selected Passages from
* The Dawn in Britain', of Charles
Doughty . . ., 335.

Faust, George Patterson, Sir Degare:
A Study of the Texts and Narrative
Structure, 139-40.

Fink, Z. S., J agues and the Malcontent
Traveller, 184.

Firth, J. B., on the Second Inter-
national Congress of Phonetic Sci-
ences, 32-3 ; The Use and Distribu-
tion of certain English Sounds . . .,
36 ; The Technique of Semantics, 36.

Fischer, Walther, on Wanderer, v t 25
andv.6-7,S9.

Flasdieck, H., Untersuchungen uber
die germanischen schwachen Verben
III. Klasse . . ., 89-90.

Fletcher, E. G., Defoe on Milton, 257;
A Dryden Anecdote, 271.

Flynn, J. G., The 'Senseless Lure'
Problem [I Tamburlaine], 208.

Ford, John, his dramatic art, and
dramatic verse, 222-4.

368

INDEX

Forman, Maurice Buxton, The Letters
of John Keats, ed. by, 325.

Forster, Max, Zur i-Epenthese im
Altenglischen, 52-3 ; on Alteng* stor,
ein altirisches Lehnwort, 85.

Forsythe, R. S., Terentius Christianus,
173.

Fort, J.-B., Samuel Butler, L'Scri-
vain; lltude d*un Style, 333 ; Samuel
Butler (1835-1902): lltrude d'un
caractere et d'une intelligence, 333-4.

Frampton, Mendal G., The Date of the
'Wakefield Master', 153-4.

Franz, Wilhelm, Klangwirkung und
Wortstellung, 37-8 ; Metrisch-gram-
matisches zu Shakespeare's *King
Lear\ 192.

Fremantle, Anne, The Wynne Diaries,
ed. by, 291-2.

French, J. Milton, An Action against
Milton, 256-7.

Freyd, B., and Padelford, F. M.,
Spenser or Anthony Munday? . . .,
241.

Gabrielson, Arvid, Misha Coles's
'Syncrisis* (167 S) as a source of In-
formation on 17th-century English,
54, 281.

Galsworthy, John, Life and Letters,
337-8.

Galway, Margaret, Flyting in Shake-
speare* s Comedies, 182.

Gannan, Douglas, The Fable of the
Bees, 289.

Garrett, John, see under Auden,
W. H., 26.

Gaster, T., Milton and the Rabbinical
Bible, 256.

George, Mary Dorothy, Catalogue, of
Political and Personal Satires Pre-
served in the Department of Prints
and Drawings in the British Museum
. . ., 312-13.

Gerould, Gordon Hall, The Prologue
and Four Canterbury Tales, ed. by,
101; Arthurian Romance and the
Date of the Relief at Modena } 141.

Ghosh, J. C., Annals of English
Literature, 12.

Gibson, Daniel, Jnr., On the Genesis of
'Pilgrim's Progress', 280.

Gilbert, Allan H., Logic in the Eliza-
bethan Drama, 202.

Girvan, Kitchie, Beowulf and the 7th
Century, 73.

Glunz, H., Zur Orrmulumfrage, 126,
see under Matthes, H. C., 126.

Goffin, R. C., Chaucer and Elocution,
9 1-2 ; Chaucer: Troilus and Criseyde 9
ed. by, 97-8.

[Gollancz], Famous Plays of 1935, 28.

Gordon, E. V., Wealhpeow and related
names, 84.

Gordon, George, Poetry and the
Moderns, 339-40.

Gould, Charles, Lettres sur les Anglois
et les Francois et sur les Voiaqes
(1728), ed. by, 290-1.

Gould, Gerald, Reviewing, 23-4.

Gover, J. M., Literary Associations of
the Middle Temple, 29.

Gow, Allison, Is Shakespeare's ''Much
Ado' a Revised Earlier Play?, 193.

Graff, W. L., Remarks on the Phoneme
35.

Grattan, J. H. G. and Sykes, C. F. H.,
The Owl and the Nightingale, 127-8.

Gray, Arthur, Spenser's Action, 241 ;
replies by W. L. Renwick, and
Kathleen Tillotson, 241.

Gray, Louis H., on Glastonbury, 60.

Gray, M. M., Scottish Poetry from
Harbour to James VI, 25.

Green, F. C., Minuet: A Critical
Survey of French and English Liter-
ary Ideas in the 18th Centuru
310-12.

Green, Z. E., The Observations on the
Epic Similes in 'The Faerie Queene*
237.

Greene, Graham, Rochester and Lee.
269.

Greene, Richard Leighton, The Early
English Carols, ed. by, 132-3.

Greenlaw, E., see under Heffner, R.,
235.

Greg, W. W., The Play of Antichrist
from the Chester Cycle, 151-2; see
under Salter, F. M., 152-3; The
Manchester Fragment of the Resur-
rection, 153 ; Christ and the Doctors
and the York Play, 153; Books and
Bookmen in the Correspondence of
Archbishop Parker, 168, 228 ; Roister
Doister . ., 172-3; answer to J. D.
Wilson, 186; Henry VI and the
Contention Plays, 194; John
Fletchers Autograph, 214-15; see
under Doran, M., 218.

Gregor, Joseph, Shakespeare: Der
Aufbau eines Zeitalters, 178-9.

Grierson, H. J. C., The Letters of Sir
W. Scott, 1823-1825, ed. by, assisted
by D. Cook, W. M. Parker, and
others, 324-5.

Grierson, John, The Cinema, 11.

Grigson, Geoffrey, The Arts To-Day,
10-11.

Grosse, F., Das engl. Renaissance-
drama im Spiegel zeitgendssischer
Staatstheorien, 224.

INDEX

369

Grubb, Marion, Kyd's Borrowing from
Gamier* $ 'Bradamante*, 209; A
Brace of Villains, 209.

Grube, F. W,, Meat Foods of the Anglo-
Saxons, 88.

Guppy, Henry, . . . History of the
Transmission of the Bible, 20-1 ;
Miles Coverdale and the English
Bible, 167.

Gurrey, P., The Appreciation of
Poetry, 28.

Gwynn, Stephen, Oliver Goldsmith,
295-6.

Haag, Karl, Das Denkgerust der
Sprache, 37.

Haight, Gordon S., The Source of
Quarles's Emblems, 260, 352; on
Quarles's cupbearer-ship to the
Queen of Bohemia, 261 ; on dates of
Quarles's secretaryship to Ussher,
261.

Hall, E. Vine, The Name Shakespeare
at Bishop's Tachbrooke, 180 ; Lettice,
Countess of Leicester, 234.

Haller, W., Tracts on Liberty in the
Puritan Revolution 1638-1647, ed.
by, 251-2.

Ham, Roswell G., Dry den as Historio-
grapher-Royal: The Authorship of
'His Majesties Declaration De-
fended*, 1681, 211; Dry den's Dedica-
tion for 'The Music oftheProphetesse\
1691, 271.

Hammer, Jacob, Commentary on the
Prophetia Merlini, 141.

Ham-merle, Karl, Verstreute me. und
fruhne. Lyrik, 134. While pu hast
gode und getest gode . . ., 134-5.

Hampden, John, The Book World, ed.
by, 23-4. Contributions by Stanley
Unwin, F. Swinnerton, D. Kilham
Roberts, W. G. Taylor, G. Wren
Howard, Gerald Gould, J. G.
Wilson, Basil Blackwell, J. Ainslie
Thin, Charles Nowell, and F. R.
Richardson, 23-4.

Harbage, Alfred, Elizabethan and 17th-
century Play MSS., 203; The
Authorship of 'The Christmas
Prince', 204-5.

Harder, Hermann, Ein ags. Sternbild-
name, 47.

Harris, Brice, Dorset's Poem 'On the
Young Statesmen', 273.

Harrison, B. S., The Rhetorical In-
consistency of Chaucer's Franklin, 29.

Harrison, G-. B., The Background to
'King Lear' . . ., 191 ; The Letters of
Queen Elizabeth, 224; see under
Rowse, A. L., 224.

2762.16 ,

Harrison, Jnr., T. P., The Latin
Pastorals of Milton and Castiglione,
253.

Harte, J. L., see under Boarman,
J. 0., 329.

Harvey, S. W., Chaucer's Debt to
Sacrobosco, 94.

Hastings, William T., Notes on 'All's
Well that Ends Well', 193 ; A Stern' st
Goodnight to Shakespeare?, 198.

Havens, P. S., Dry den's 'Tagged*
Version of 'Paradise Lost\ 270.

Havens, R. B., Unreconciled Opposites
in Keats, 347.

Hazard, Paul, La Crise de la con-
science europeenne, 279-80.

Heath, B., Pope's Lost Sermon on
Glass-Bottles, 316.

Hefnaer, R. S., Note on Phonologic
Oppositions, 36.

Heriner, Ray, The Faerie Queene,
Book IV, ed. by [in The Works of
Edmund Spenser: A Variorum
Edition, ed. by E. Greenlaw, C. E.
Osgood, F. M, Padelford], 235 ; The
Printing of John Hughes 's Edition
of Spenser, 1715, 235.

Henderson, Philip, Literature, 10.

Henderson, W. B. Drayton, Shake-
speare's 'Troilus and Cressida*
yet deeper in its Tradition, 196.

Henry, Myrtle C., John Trevenna:
. . . Romantic Elements . . ., 336.

Hepple, R. B., Terentius Christianus,
173.

Herben, Jr., S. J., The, Vercelli Book:
a New Hypothesis, 88-9.

Hewett-Thayer, W., Tieck and the
Elizabethan Drama: his Marginalia,
211-12.

Hiddemann, H., Geistige Arbeit, 121.

Hill, Frank E., The Canterbury Tales,
. . . into mod. Engl. verse, 100.

Hinckley, H. B., The Riddle of the
Ormulum, 126.

Hinton, E. M., Ireland through Tudor
Eyes, 226.

Hintz, H. W., The Elizabethan Enter-
tainment and ''The Faerie Queene" ',
237.

Hiscock, W. G., The Christ Church
Missing Books, 204.

Hitchcock, Elsie V,, The Lyfe of Sir
Thomas Moore, Knight, . . . by Wm.
Roper, ed. by, 163.

Hittmair, Rudolf, Zu den Akionsarten
im Mittelenglischen, 54 ; Earl Rivers 9
Einleitung zu einer tlbertragung der
Weisheitsspruche der Philosophen,
160-1.

Hoche, A. E., Aus der Werkstatt, 183.

370

INDEX

Hodges, J. (X, On the Date of Con-

greve'a Birth, 269.
Hodgkin, B. H., A History of the

Anglo-Saxons ', 68-9.
Holman, L. E., The Life of Frances

Maria Kelly, Actress, 318.
Holthausen, Ferdinand, Ein mittel-

eng. Gedicht uber die Funf tfreuden

Marias, 136.
Hooker, E. N., Dry den's Allusion to

the Poet of Excessive Wit, 269,
Hooper, A. G., The Awntyrs off

Arthure: Dialect and Authorship,

143.
Hoops, J., Kommentar zum Beowulf,

81.

Hopkins, G. M., Letters, 331-2.
Horn, W., on. OE. hwcepere, 84-5.
Horwill, H. W., A Dictionary of Mod.-

Amer. Usage, 39-40.
House, Boy Temple, Shakespeare and

a Poor Suriss Peasant, 197.
Houtzager, M. E., Unconscious Sound-

and Sense-assimilations, 45-6.
Howard, G-. Wren, Book Production,

23.
Howard, Leon, Early American Copies

of Milton,^!.
Howarth, B. G., Some Additions to the

Poems of Lord Dorset, 274.
Howe, Susanne, Geraldine Jewsbury,

Her Life and Errors, 330.
Hubener, Gustav, Beowulf and Ger-
manic Exorcism, 79-80.
Hubler, Edward, The Verse Lining

of Ql of 'King Lear', 187.
Hudson, H, H., Penelope Devereux as

Sidney's Stella, 233.
Hudson-Williams, T., Short Intro-
duction to the Study of Comparative

Grammar, 31.
Hughes, Merritt Y.> Spenser V Palmer,

238; John Milton, Paradise Lost,

ed. by, 252-3,
Hughey, Buth, The Earington MS.

at Arundel Castle and Related Docu-
ments, 351.
Hunt, T. B., The Scenes as Shakespeare

saw them, 195.
Hurst, Norman, Four Elements in

Literature, 8-9.
Hutcherson, Dudley, Forged Quartos,

187-8.
Hutohings, Gweneth, Gawain and the

Abduction of Guenevere, 141.

Iredale, Q., Thomas Traherne, 260.

Jaager, Werner, Bedas metrische Vita
Sancti Cuthberti, 78.

Jaggard, W., Words and Meanings:

Additions to the 'N.E.D.\ 43.
Jahresbericht uber die Erscheinungen

auf dem Gebiete der germanischen

Philologie . . ., 30.
James, A. Lloyd, The Broadcast Word,

60.
James, M. B., on the MSS. of the

Eistoria Ecclesiastica, 70; The

Canterbury Psalter: A Reproduction,

with Introduction by, 120.
James, Stanley B., Back to Langland,

131 ; The Neglect of Langland, 131.
Janelle, Pierre, Robert Southwell: the

Writer, 231-2.
Jenkins, Harold, On the Authenticity

of ' Greene's Groatsworth of Wif and

'The Repentance of R. Greene', 243.
Jenkins, B., 'Newes out of Munster ', A

Document in Spenser* s Hand, 241.
Jennings, Humphrey, Theatre, 10.
Jentsch, Heinz G., Henry More in

Cambridge, 263.
Jespersen, Otto, A Few Back-

Formations, 55.
Jevons, H. Stanley, Contemporary

Models of Sir Thomas More, 165.
Jiriczek, Otto L., Loda in Macpher-

sorts Ossian, 314; Zw Biblio-
graphic und Textgeschichte von

Hugh Blair's Critical Dissertation

on the Poems of Ossian, 314.
Johnson, E. C., Lamb Always Mia,

319.
Johnson-Ferguson, Sir Edward, The

Place-names of Dumfriesshire, 59.
Johnston, G. B., Two Notes on Ben

Jonson, 212.
Joliat, Eugene, Smollett et la France,

306-7.
Joly, A., William Drummond de Haw-

thornden, 1585-1649, 242.
Jones, C. E., An Essay on the External

Use of Water, by T. Smollett, 289.
Jones, Deborah Champion, Natural

History in the Literary Works of

Thomas Lodge, 245,
Jonson, Ben, stage history, 209-10;

in Germany, 210-11; Jonson and

Shakespeare, 211-12; Volpone, 212.
Judson, A. 0., A Biographical Sketch

of John Young, p. of Rochester, . . .

Relations with Edmund jSpenser,

234-5.
Jump, J. D., The Anonymous Masque

in MS. Egerton 1994, 220-1.

Kahrl, G. M., The Influence of Shake-
speare on Smollett, 196; Robert
Tofte's Annotations in c The Blazon
of Jealousie*, 247.

INDEX

371

Keck, Wendell Magee, Accounting for
Irregularities in Cloten, 193.

Kelcy, Alfred, Notes on 'Hamlet', 190.

Keller, Wolfgang, Die Entstehung des
Sommernachtstraums, 193; Bucher-
schau, 197.

Kelley, Maurice, Milton's Debt to
Wolleb; Milton and the Third Per-
son of the Trinity, 255; on De
Doctrina Christiana, 255.

Kellogg, Eleanor H., Bishop Brunton
and the Fable of the Eats, 130.

Kennedy, C. W., Political Theory in
the Plays of Chapman, 216.

Kennedy, Virginia W.,. T. Coleridge:
a Selected Bibliography . . ., com-
piled by, assisted by Mary N.
Barton, 320-1.

Kindervater, J. W., see under
Pollert, H., 197.

King, Lucille, "2 and 3 Henry VP
which Holinshed?, 194.

Kirchner, G., 'To Feed' construed
with various objects and prepositions,
62.

Kirk, Rudolf, The City-Madam: a
Comedy by Philip Massinger, ed. by,
216-17; Mr. Pepys upon the State
of Christ-Hospital, 276-7.

Kirkland, E. C., . . . Folklore in Mil-
ton's English Poems, 263.

Kirkwood, A. E. M., King Richard II,
194.

Klaeber, Fr., Zu alteng. Dichtungen,
86.

Knapp, Lewis M., Smollett and the
Case of James Annesley, 317; The
Publication of Smollett's Complete
History and Continuation, 353.

Knorr, F., William Shakespeare, 180.

Knowlton, E. C., Spenser and Nature,
237.

Kokeritz, Helge, English Pronuncia-
tion as described in Shorthand sys-
tems of the 17th and 18th Centuries,
54.

Koller, Kathrine, Identifications in
* Colin Clout's Come Home Again',
241.

Kostitch, George and Garrido, Isabel,
A Description of English Grammar
for Foreign Students, 61.

Koszul, A., Bulletin de la Faculte des
Lettres de Strasbourg, 169-70.

Koziol, Herbert, Bemerkungen zum
Gebrauch emiger neuenglisehen Zeit-
formen, 61.

Krappe, A. H., Mediaeval Literature
and the Comparative Method, 122-3.

Kreider, P. V., Genial Literary Satire
in the Forest of Arden, 182; Eliza-

bethan Comic Character Conventions
, . , Comedies of George Chapman,
215-16.

Krogmann, Willy, AltengL antid und
seine Sippe, 82; on Ae. defu, 85;
on Ae. georman-, geormen~ 9 85; on
OE. to-socnung, 47, 90.

Kjumpelmann, John T., on the
American Hoodlum, 64.

Kuersteiner, Agnes D,, E. K. is
Spenser, 239.

Kurath, Hans, on a projected Ameri-
can Linguistic Atlas, 63.

Labinski, Marianne, Shakespeares
Komddie der Irrungen: Das Werk
und seine Gestaltung auf der Buhne,
193.

Lamprecht, S. P., The Role of Des-
cartes in 17th-Century England, 280.

Lange, J. de, The Relation and
Development of English and Ice-
landic Outlaw-traditions, 125.

Langennann, H. von, Ein Brief des
Grafen Wolf Baudissin, uber die
Vollendung der Schlegel-TiecJcschen
Shakespeare-Ubersetzung, 197.

Langland, William, Piers Plowman in
Modern English, 128-9; * The Lang-
land Myth', 129-30; 'Chaucer and
Langland 5 , 131-2.

Law, A. R., Almost damrfd in a fair
wife, 191.

Lawrence, W. J., To be or Not to Be:
A Revelation, 186; his answers to
J. D. Wilson, 186; The Original
Staging of R. and J. Ill, V, 192 ;
Those Nut-Cracking Elizabethans:
. . . Early Theatre and Drama, 200 ;
The Empress of Morocco, 269;
Rochester and Lee, 269.

Lawrence, William W., Satire in Sir
Thopas, 107-8.

Leathes, Sir Stanley, Rhythm in Eng-
lish Poetry, 15-16.

Leech, Clifford, The Plays of Edward
Sharpham: Alterations Accom-
plished and Projected, 221-2.

Lernmi, Charles W., Symbolism in
'FaerieQueene'II. l2,%%%jAstery"s
Transformation in * Muiopotmos* '
240.

Leslie, Shane, The Script of Jonathan
Swift and other Essays, 304r~5,

Lewis, C. S., 'The Genuine Text*
[Shakespeare], 186; answer to
JT. D. Wilson, 186.

Lightbown, J., The Prick of Con-
science: A collation of MSS. Galba
E IX and Harley 4196, 128.

Linke, Gerhard, Der WortscJiatz des

372

INDEX

mitteleng. Epos Genesis und Exodus
mit grammatischer Einleitung, 126-7.

Linthicum, M. Channing, 'Folding'
and <Medlee\ 106.

Lockert, Lacy, The Greatest of Eliza-
bethan Melodramas, 220.

Longaker, Mark, Contemporary Bio-
graphy, 21.

Loomis, Laura EL, Chaucer's 'Jewes
Werk' and Guy of Warwick, 108-9.

Lotspeich, H. G., Spenser's 'Virgil's
Gnat' and its Latin Originals, 240;
Spenser's "Urania, 240.

Lucas, E. V., The Letters of Charles
Lamb, . . . [and] Mary Lamb, ed. by,
318-19.

Luick, Karl, Zur Palatalisierung, 52.

Lyman, Dean B., The Great Tom
Fuller, 262.

Lyons, Clifford P., The Marriage De-
bate in the ' C. Tales \ 104r~5.

Lytton, The Earl of, Essays by Divers
Hands, contributions by St. John
Ervine, H. Hardy Wallis, W. E.
Inge, Anthony Deane, Robert L.
Ramsey and D. Mchol Smith,
24-5, 347.

Mabbott, T. 0., Contemporary Evi-
dence for Royal Favour to Milton,
257.

Macaulay, T. C., French and English
Drama in the 17th century, 201,
268.

McCabe, William K., Fatum Vorti-
gerni, 205.

Macdonald, Angus, Sir Gawain and
the Green Knight, 142.

McHwraith, A. K., The Printer's Copy
for 'The City-Madam', 217; A
Further Patron of 'The City Madam',
217.

McKeitham, D. M., Bulleri 's Beau-
mont and Fletcher, 213.

McKerrow, E. B., A suggestion re-
garding Shakespeare's MSS., 187.

McKnight, W. L., Sir T. Browne of
the Religio Medici, 263.

McManaway, James G., *I. Ill' on
the Stage, 196,

McMaster, Helen N, Vaughan and
Wordsworth, 259-60.

McNabb, Vincent, The Authorship of
the Ancren Mwle, 149; Saint John
Fisher, 166.

MacNeice, Louis, Poetry, 10.

Major, J. C., The Role of Personal
Memoirs in English Biography and
Novel, 21.

Mallet, Sir Charles, Anthony Hope and
his Books: . . ., 336-7.

Malone, Kemp, HerleMn and Herle-
win, 47, 48-9; Some Linguistic
Studies of 1933 and 1934, 64 ; on the
name Healfdene, 82-3; English
Lyrics of the XHIth Century, 138.

Manchee, W. H., Samuel Pepys and his
Link with the Huguenots, 277.

Mandin, Louis, Shakespeare et les
moutons savants, 197.

Mangam, Ch. R., Robert Southwell,
and the Council of Trent, 232.

Manly, J. M., Mary Chaucer's First
Husband, 116; see under Millet,
F. B., 344.

Marburg, Clara, Mr. Pepys and Mr.
Evelyn, 275-6.

Marckwardt, A. H., Origin and Ex-
tension of the Voiceless Preterite and
the P. P. Inflections of the English
Irregular Weak Verb Conjn., 57.

Marett, R. R., see under Paget, Sir R.,
37.

Marlowe, Christopher, MS. memor-
anda, 206-7 ; Ingram Frizer, 207-8.

Marrot, H. V., The Life and Letters of
John Galsworthy, 337-8.

Marshall-Calder, Arthur, Fiction To-
Day, 10.

Martin, Burns, A Midsummer Night's
Dream, 192-3.

Martin, Willard F., A Chaucer Biblio-
graphy, 1925-33, 117.

Mathesius, Vilem, Zur synchronischen
Analyse fremden Sprachguts, 36,

Matthes, H. C., Quellenauswertung
und Quellenberufung im Ormulum,
126. See under Glunz, H., 126.

Matthews, William, Sailors* Pronun-
ciation in the second half of the 17th
Century, 54, 281 ; The Lincolnshire
Dialect in the 18th Century, 56;
Shakespeare and the Reporters, 187,
351 ; Peter Bales, Timothy Bright,
and W. Shakespeare, 187; Samuel
Pepys and Spain, 277; Pepys's
Transcribers, 277.

Matthiessen, F. O., The Achievement
of T. S. Eliot: an Essay on the Nature
of Poetry, 241-2.

Mavor, Ivan, Wycherley and St. PauTs
School, 269.

Mawer, Allen, Nook-Shotten in 'Henry
V\ 195.

Maxwell, Baldwin, The Date of
Fletcher's 'The Night-Walker?, 214;
The Woman's Prize, or The Tamer
Tamed, 214.

Meech, S. B., An Early Treatise in
English concerning Latin Grammar,
56-7; on four treatises on Latin
Grammar in 15th-century English,

INDEX

373

157-8; on the 3 English musical
treatises in MS. Lansdowne 763,
ed. by, 158-9.

Megroz, R. L., Dramatic Verse, ed. by,
26.

Meritt, Herbert, on OE. Ober eliman,
innannorum t 47.

Meyerstein, E. H. W., Collinses Ode
on Colonel Ross, 316; An Essay by
Collins, 316.

Mezger, F., Ae. tintreg(a} 9 *tind~treg(a),
85-6 ; Der germanische Kult und die
Ae. Femininaauf-icgeund-estre t 87.

Mill, Anna J., on craft-accounts for
the Bakers' Corpus Christi pageant,
154-5.

Millett, F. B., The First Part of the
Reign of King Richard II or Thomas
of Woodstock, 221 ; Contemporary
British Literature: a Critical Survey
and 232 Author-Bibliographies, 3rd
ed., revised and enlarged by J. M.
Manly and E. Bickert, 344-5.

Millett, F. B., and Bentley, G. E.,
The Art of the Drama, 18-19.

Milton, John, personality and art,
252 ; De Doctrina Christiana, 254^-6 ;
Milton's Spelling, 256; Blake and
Milton, 307.

Mitchell, W. Fraser, A Scots Sermon-
Squib, 262.

Mohardt, Mathias, A la recherche de
Shakespeare; L' identification de Mai-
volio, 197.

Monk, S. H., The Sublime: a Study of
Critical Theories on 18th-Century
England, 308-9.

Moore, J. R., The Contemporary signi-
ficance of Middletorfs l Game at
Chesse 9 , 217-18.

Moore, Samuel, Meech, Sanford
Brown, and Whitehall, Harold,
ME. Dialect Characteristics and
Dialect Boundaries . . ., 42-3.

Moore Smith, G. C., Printed Books
'with Gabriel Harvey's Autograph,
244.

More, Paul Elmer, and Cross, Frank
Leslie, Anglicanism . . . the Re-
ligious Literature of the 17th Century t
251.

More, Sir Thomas, Scholar and writer,
162-3; Roper's Life, 163; bio-
graphies, 163-4, 166; his models,
65; Utopia, 165.

Moreland, C. C., Ritson's Life of Robin
Hood, 315.

Morgan, Charles, Epitaph on George
Moore, 338-9.

Morley, Edith J., The Life and Times
of Henry Crabb Robinson* 318.

Muir, Kenneth, Shakespeare's Imagery ,

178.
Murphy, G. H., Shakespeare and the

Ordinary Man, 180.
Murry, John Middleton, Shakespeare?

178.
Myrick, K. O., Sir Philip Sidney as a

Literary Craftsman, 224.

Nahm, Milton C., John Wilson's "The
Cheats', ed. by, 266-7,

Neill, Kerby, The * Faerie Queene* and
the Mary Stuart Controversy, 239.

Nettleton, George H., Author's
Changes in Dryden's Conquest of
Granada, 270; The School for
Scandal, 316.

Neuhof, Hans, Die Calibangestalt in
Shakespeare's 'Sturm', 193.

Newton, T. F. M., William Pittis and
Queen Anne Journalism, 315.

Mcolson, Marjorie, The Telescope and
Imagination, 250; The New Astro-
nomy and English Literary Imagina-
tion, 250-1.

Noble, Richmond, Shakespeare's
Biblical Knowledge and Use of the
Book of Common Prayer . . ., 1768,
on dates of Samlet, Twelfth Night,
and Othello, 191.

Nbwell, Charles, The Public Library,
24.

Noyes, R. G., Ben Jonson on the Eng-
lish Stage, 1660-1776, 209-10.

Oakden, J. P., and Innes, Elizabeth

R., Alliterative Poetry in ME. . . .,

121-2.
Ockenden, R. E., John Frampton's

Account of the Tobacco-Plant, 242-3.
O'Connell, Sir John R., Saint Thomas

More, 164; Saint Thomas More as

Citizen, 164.
O'Connor, D., The Four Last Things,

ed. by, 165.
O'Conor, Norreys J., Godes Peace and

the Queenes 9 205-6.
Oliphant, E. H. C., Hamlet's Own

Lines, 190; Tourneur and Mr. T. S.

Eliot, 219.

O'Loughlin, J. L. N., The ME. Alli-
terative 'Morte Arthure 1 , 143.
Oncken, H., Cromwell: Vier Essays

uber die Fuhrung einer Nation, 263.
Onions, C. T., on 'Sere', 192.
Osgood, C. E., see under Heffner, R.,

235.
O'Sullivan, Mary J., Firumbras and

Otuel and Boland, 140-1.

Padelford, F. M., see under Hefeier,
R., 235.

374

INDEX

Page, E. R., George Caiman the Elder,
. . . 1732-1794, 300-1.

Page, Frederick, An Essay by Collins,
316.

Page, Nadine, Beatrice: My Lady Dis-
dain, 184; The Public Repudiation
of Hero, 184.

Paget, Sir Richard, This English, with
a Preface by R. R. Marett, 37.

Palmer, W. M., John Sayer (1586-
1640) of Shepreth, Cambridgeshire,
a 17th-Century Local Historian, 262 ;
see under Grierson, H. J. C., 324.

Parker, W. R., Some Problems in the
Chronology of Milton's Early Poems,
253; On Milton's Early Literary
Programme, 254; The Trinity MS.
and Milton's Plans for a Tragedy,
254 ; Symmetry in Milton's Samson
Agonistes, 256; The Kommos of
Milton's 'Samson Agonistes', 256.

Parrish, M. L., A Letter of Charlotte
Bronte, 347.

Parsons, C. O., Dryderfs Letter of
Attorney, 271.

Parsons, Edward S., The Earliest Life
of Milton, 257.

Patch, Howard R., Precious Stones in
'The House of Fame', 9^-5; The
Tradition of Boethius: A Study of his
Importance in Medieval Culture,
123-4.

Patterson, F. A., and seven associate
editors, The Works of John Milton,
vol. vii, . . . Pro Populo Anglicano
Defensio . . , ed. by Clinton W.
Keyes, transl. by Samuel Lee Wolff ;
vols. viii and ix, Defensio Secunda,
and Pro se Defensio, ed. by E. J.
Strittmatter, . . . and Moses Hadas ;
vol. x, The Hist, of Britain and A
Brief Hist, of Moscovia, ed. by
G. P. Krapp ; vol. xi, Artis Logicae
Plenior Institutio, ed. and transl.
by Allan H. Gilbert ; vols. xiv-xvii,
De Doctrina Christiana, ed. by
J. H. Hanford and W. H. Dunn, 264.

Payling, L. W. H., Geology and Place-
names in Kesteven, with map, 60.

Pearson, B. R., Dumb-Show in Eliza-
bethan Drama, 201-2.

Peddie, R. A., Subject Index of BooJcs
up to and including 1880; Second
Series, A-Z, 350-1.

Peers, Sir Charles, a history of Monk-
wearmouth and Jarrow, ... 70.

Pellizzi, Camillo, English Drama',
trans, by Rowan Williams, 17-18.

Pepys, Samuel, and the navy, 274r-5 ;
and Christ's Hospital, 276-7; Ms
shorthand, 277-8.

Phillips, E. M., Sainte-Beuve et lea
poetes romantiques anglais, 347.

Piccoli, Raffaello, Otello . . . La Notte
dellEpifania . . . Sogno d'una notte
Restate, transl, by, and by Aurelio
Zanco, and Guilia Celenza respec-
tively, 195.

Pinto, Vivian de Sola, Rochester: ... a
Restoration Poet, 272-3 ; The Poetry
of John Wilmot, Sari of Rochester,
273.

Pirkhofer, A., Zum syntaktischen
Gebrauch des bestimmten ArtiJcels bei
Caxton, 150-1.

Plimpton, George A., The Education
of Chaucer illustrated from the School
BooJcs in Use in his Time, 114-15.

Pollard, G., see under Brassel, I. R.,
350.

Pollert, Hubert and Kindervater,
J. W., Zeitschriftenschau, 197-8.

Pope, Alexander, Pope's Own Mis-
cellany, 286-7.

Potter, Stephen, Coleridge andS. T. O.,
319-20.

Pratt, Robert A., Chaucer and Boc-
caccio, 115.

Priebsch, R., and Collinson, W. E.,
The German Language, 64-5.

Probst, Elfriede, Der Mnfluss Shake-
speares auf der Stuart-Trilogie
Swinburnes, 196.

Purcell, J. M., The Date of 1 Henry IV,
194; Sidney's 'Astrophel and Stella*
and Gremlle's *Ccelica\ 233 ; Gabriel
Harvey 1 s Vocabulary, 243.

Purdie, Edna, see under Robertson,
J. G., 21.

Purdy, R. L., The Rivals, ed. by, 287-
9.

Purves, J., The Dumb-Show in * Ham*
let\ 190.

Pyle, Fitzroy, The Suppressed Edition
of A Mirror for Magistrates, 170 ; on
Hamlet's oum, lines, 190.

Quennell, Peter, Byron: the Years of

Fame, 323.
Quiller-Couch, Sir Arthur, Felicities

of Thomas Traherne, 260.

Raby, F. J. E., A ME. Paraphrase of
John of Hoveden's 'Philomena', and
the Text of his ' Viola*, 128.

Rathlou, Viggo J. von Holstein,
Hesperider og Noble Numre of den
BritisJce Poet Robert HerricJc, 260.

Ray, James K., see under Tilley,
M. P., 208.

Raysor, T. M., The Aesthetic Signi-
ficance of Shakespeare's Handling
of Time, 182.

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INDEX

375

Read, A. W., Two New England Word-
lists, 63 ; Amphi- Atlantic English, 63.

Reade, A* L., Johnsonian Gleanings,
Part vii; The Jervis, Porter, and
Other Allied Families, 294.

Reade, A. R., Main Currents in
Modern Literature, 344.

Reaney, P. H,, The Place-names of
Essex, 57-8.

Reeves, W. Peters, A Second MS. of
Wyclifs *De Dominio Civili\ 150.

Reimers, Hans, Jonathan Swift:
Gedanken und Schriften tiber Re-
ligion und Kirche, 303-4.

Renwick, W. L., on 'Too, too sullied
Flesh', 190.

Rhodes, R. Crompton, The Early 19th-
century Drama, 352.

Richardson, F. R., The Circulating
Library, 24.

Rickert, E., see tinder MiEet, F. B.,
344.

Ridley, M. R., William Shakespeare:
A Commentary, 179; answer to
J. D. Wilson, 186; on a 'Pocket
Shakespeare', 186; The New Temple
Shakespeare, 195,

Roberts, D. Kolham, The Literary
Agent, 23.

Roberts, J. H., The Significance of
'Lamia\ 347.

Roberts, S. 0., Doctor Johnson, 294-5.

Robertson, J. G., Essays . . . on
Literature, ed. by Edna Purdie,
21-2.

Robinson, H. W. 5 and Adams, W.,
with a Foreword by Sir F. G. Hop-
kins, The Diary of Robert HooJce
...,ed. by, 278-9.

Rochester, John Wilmot, Earl of,
biography, 272-3, poetry, 273.

Rohde, Eleanour Sinclair, ShaJce-
speared Wild Flowers: Fairy Lore,
Gardens, Herbs . . ., 182-3.

Rollins, Hyder E., . . . Sources of
Melbancke's Philotimus, 243 ;
Thomas Deloney's Euphuistic
Learning^ and l The Forest \ 244.

Ronte, Heinz, Richardson und Field-
ing: Geschichte ihres Ruhms: lAte-
rarsoziologischer Versuch, 305-6.

Rosenfeld, Sybil, The Restoration
Stage in Newspapers and Journal,
1660-1700, 268.

Ross, A. S. C., The Runic Stones at
Holy Island, 85 ; The Norn. Ace. Sg.
Fern, and the Anglo-Frisian Hi"
Pronoun, 89 ; The ME* Poem on the
Names of a Hare, 137-8,

Ross, Woodburn. O., Another Ana-
logue to The Prioresses Tale, 107.

Routh, H. V., Money, Morals and

manners . . . in Modern Literature,

11.
Rowse, A. L., and Harrison, G. B.,

Queen Elizabeth and her Subjects,

225.
Russell, A. J., Their Religion, 180.

Sale, Jnr., W. M., Samuel Richardson

and Sir W . Harrington, 316.
Salter, F. M., on 'Of Tym&' [not by

Skelton?], 168-9; and Greg,

W. W., The Trial and Flagellation

, ..in the Chester Cycle, 152-3.
Saltmarsh, John, Two Medieval Love*

songs set to music, 135-6.
Sampson, George, on an imaginary,

not real, Hamlet, 190; The Original

Staging of R. and J, III, V, 192.
Sampley, A. M,, Peele's 'Decensus

Astraeae' and Marlowe *s 'Edward

IP, 208.
Sanders, C. R., Coleridge as Champion

of Liberty, 347.

Sargeaunt, M. Joan, John Ford, 222-4.
Sargent, Daniel, Thomas More, 163-4.
Saurat, Denis, Blake and Milton, 307.
Savage, Henry, A Note on Sir Gawain

and the Green Knight, 142-3.
Schirmer, W. F., Shakespeare und die

Rhetorik, 182.
Schleck, F. J., Richardson on the

Index, 316.

Schroer, Arnold, Shakespeareana, 195.
Schubiger, Maria, The Role of Intona-
tion in Spoken English, 60.
Schucking, Levin L., The Churchyard

scene in Shakespeare's * Hamlet" ',

190.
Schulze, IvanL., Elizabethan Chwalry

and the Faerie Queene's Annual

Feast, 237.
Scott, Sir S. H., The Exemplary Mr.

Day, 1748-1789, 302-3.
Seaton, Ethel, Literary Relations of

England and Scandinavia in the

17th Century, 200-1, 249-50.
Sedgefield, W. J., Beowulf, ed. by,

[3rd ed.], 74^-6.
Selincotirt, E. de, The Early Letters of

W. and Dorothy Wordsworth, 322-3 ;

see also under Williams, C., 26.
Sells, A. Lytton, The History of

Francis Wills: A Literary Mystery,

316.
Serjeantson, Mary, A History of

Foreign Words in English, 43-5;

assisted by Leslie N. Broughton,

Annual Bibliography of Unglish

Language and Literature, ed. "by,

353.

376

INDEX

Severs, J. Burke, The Source of

Chaucer's l Melibeus\ 109-10.
Sewell, Arthur, Milton and the Mosaic
Law, 255-6.

Shaekford, M. H., E. B. Browning,
R. H. Horne . . ., 328-9.

Shafer, B., Paul Elmer More and
American Criticism, 345-6.

Shakespeare, William, his 'life-work',
178; artistry, 180-3; backgrounds,
178-9; sources, 195-6; stage-
problems, 192-3, 195-6; biblio-
graphy, 197-8; Imagery, 175-8;
Hamlet, 177-91; 'The Jew\ 184-5;
Lear, 187, 191-2; Othello, 191;
Falstaff, 185, 194.

Sharpe, E. B., Title-Page Mottoes in
the Poetomachia, 213; The Heal
War of the Theatres . . ., 224.

Shaw, Margaret, Letters of Laurence
Sterne, 316.

Shellabarger, Samuel, Lord Chester-
field, 296-7.

Shepherd, T. B., John Wilkes in the
Strand, 316.

Sherburn, G., Pope's Lost Sermon on
Glass-Bottles, 316.

Shillinglaw, A. T., on Leviathan
originally chiefly in English, 262.

Shine, H., Carlyle and, the German
Philosophy Problem, 1826-7, 347,

Simmons, E. J., English Literature
and Culture in Russia, 13-14.

Simpson, Percy, Proof-Reading in the
16th, 17th 9 and 18th Centuries, 348.

Skeat, Walter, Milton's Lament for
Damon and his other Latin Poems
. . . into English, with Preface and
Introductions by E. H. Visiak, 253.

SkUlan, George, The Merchant of
Venice . . ., 195.

Slover, Clark H., Glastoribury Abbey
and the Fusing of English Literary
Culture, 123.

Slovsky, V., Considerations thtoriques
sur la conception d'un, Dictionnaire,
43.

Small, Miriam Bossiter, Charlotte
Ramsay Lennox: an 18th Century
Lady of Letters, 302-3,

Small, G.W.,Shakespeare's Stage,, 195.

Small, S. A., The Influence of Seneca,
196.

Smith, A. H., The Parker Chronicle,
ed. by, 76-7; Saga-Book of the
Viking Society, 87-8.

Smith, Charles G-., Spenser'* Theory
of Friendship . . ., 238; Sententious
Theory in Spenser's Legend of
Friendship, 238-9.

Smith, David Nichol, The Letters of

Jonathan Swift to Charles Ford,
283-4.
Smith, F. A., The Light Reading of

Dr. Johnson, 316.

Smith, F. M., The Relation of Cole-
ridge's 'Ode on Dejection 1 to Words-
worth's I 0de on Intimations of Im-
mortality ', 347.
Smith, George, The Coronation of

Elizabeth Wydeville, 160.
Smith, Janet Adam, Poems of To-
morrow: an Anthology of Contem-
porary Verse . . .from 'The Listener',
ed. by, 346.
Smith, Logan Pearsall, Fine Writing,

28-9.

Smith, Mary Frances, Wisdom and
Personification . . . in ME. Litera-
ture, 124-5.

Smith, Bichard Lawrence, John

Fisher, and Thomas More . . .,166.

Smith, Bobert, M., An Interesting

First Folio, 187 ; The Folger Folios,

187.

Smith, Boland M., Spenser's Irish
River Stories, 237 ; Una and Duessa,
238.

Smith, W. G., with iatrod. and Index

by Janet E. Heseltine, The Oxford

Dictionary of English Proverbs,

40-1.

Smith-Dampier, J, L., Who's Who in

Boswellf, 303.
Smyser, H. M., and Stroup, T. B.,

Analogues to the Mak Story, 154.
Snyder, F. B., Burns and the Smuggler

Rosamund, 315.
Sorensen, Fred, The Masque of the

Muscovites, in L.L.L., 192.
South, Helen Pennock, * The Question

of HaUam\ 137.
Spencer, Hazelton, The Undated

Quarto of C J Honest Whore\ 213.
Spender, Stephen, The Destructive

Element, 242-3.
Spenser, Edmund, platonism, 236;

Faerie Queene, 237-9.
Sperry, W. L., Wordsworth's Anti-
Climax, 321-2.
Spira, Theodor, Zum Wesen des

Puritanismus f 248.
Sprague, Arthur Colby, Shakespeare

and the Audience . . ., 181.
Spurgeon, C. F. E., Shakespeare's

Imagery . . ., 175-8.
Squire, Sir John, Reflections and
Memories, 22-3 ; Flowers of Speech,
23; Shakespeare as a Dramatist,
180-1.

Stahl, E. L., and Anders, Erika, T&ea-
terschau, 198.

INDEX

377

Stamm, Eudolf, Der aufgeklarte Puri-
tanismus Daniel Defoes, 305.

Starke, Fritz, Populdre engl. Chroni-
Jcen des 15. Jts , 146-8.

Staubert, Paul, Thomas Chatterton
und seine Rowley '-Dichtung unter-
sucht auf Grund der Psychologic der
Reifezeit, 301.

Steadman, Jnr., J. M., A Study of
Verbal Taboos, 37 ; Language Taboos
of American College Students, 37.

Steck, Paul, Schiller und Shakespeare,
197.

Stevenson, Hazel A., A Possible Rela-
tion between Chaucer's Long Lease
and the Date of his Birth, 115.

Stewart, George R., English Geo-
graphy in Malory's 'MorteD' Arthur',

144r-5.

Stirling, Brents, Two Notes on the
Philosophy of * Mutabilitie\ 239.

StoU, E. E., The Dramatic Texture of
Shakespeare, 182; Oedipus and
Othello: Corneille, Rymer and Vol-
taire, 182; Hamlet the Man, 185-6;
The Date of 'The Malcontent'; A
Rejoinder, 220.

Strachan, L. R. M., Fl&d in A.-S.
Names, 48.

Strathmann, E. A., Lady Carey and
Spenser, 235.

Straumann, Heinrich, Newspaper
Headlines . . ., 61.

Stroup, T. B., see under Smyser,
H. M., 154; "The Princess of Ckve'
and Sentimental Comedy, 269.

Sturgiss, Marie EL, Shakespeare's
Miranda, 184.

Summers, Montague, The Playhouse
of Pepys, 265-6 ; A Bibliography of
the Restoration Drama, 266.

Summerson, John, Architecture, 11.

Siisskand, P., Geschichte des un-
bestimmten Artikels im Alt- und
Fruhmittelenglischen, 55.

Sutherland, J. R., A Note on the Last
Years of Defoe, 314; The Beggar's
Opera, 316.

Swadesh, Morris, Twaddell on De-
fining the Phoneme, 35 ; The Vowels
of Chicago English, 64.

Swaen, A. H., Malapropism, 55-6.

Swift, Jonathan, Letters, 282-3; The
Drapier's Letters, 285-6 ; his script,
304-5.

Swinnerton, F., The Georgian Scene:
a Panorama, 343-4.

Tannenbaum, S. A., Classified Biblio-
graphy, 197 ; Editorial Notes on ' Wit
and Science', 171.

Tatlock, J. S. P., The Date of the
'Troilus' and Minor Chauceriana,
98-9, 105 ; The Canterbury Tales in
1400, 101-3.

Taylor, G., Notes on Athelston, 139.
Taylor, Marion A., How Falstaff

brought Holinshed up to date, 194.
Ten Hoor, G. J., Ben Jonson's Recep-
tion in Germany, 21011.
Tenney, E. A., Thomas Lodge, 244-5.
Thaler, Alwin, Shakespeare and Spen-
ser, 195-6.

Thin, J. Ainslie, Bookselling, 24.
Thomas, Gilbert, William Cowper and

the 18th Century, 298-9.
Thomas, Sidney, Wolsey and French

Farces, 172.

Thompson, A. Hamilton, Bede, his
Life, Times and Writings, ed. by,
69-71. [Contains 11 essays.]
Thompson, C. R., A Note on Nicholas

Chaucer, 116.

Thompson, Edward, Sir Walter
Raleigh, 245-6; on The Tudor
Character, 246.

Thomson, S. Harrison, The Date of
the Early English Translation of the
'Candet Nudatum Pectus\ 137.
Thornton, R. H., American Glossary,

63.

Thorpe, Clarence D., . . . Dennis and
Addison on Mountain Scenery,
280-1.
Tibbie, J. W., The Poems of John

Clare, ed. by, 325.

Tickell, R. E., Pope and Tickell, 316.
Tilley, M. P., The Marriage of Wit and

Science, 171 ; and Ray, J. K.,

Proverbs and Proverbial Allusions,
208.
Tillotson, G., Rasselas and the Persian

Tales, 316.

Tillyard, E. M. W., on C. S. Lewis's
'The Personal Heresy in Criticism*,
24 ; see under Williams, C., 26.
Timberlake, P. W., Milton and Euri-
pides, 256.
The Times, The History of, . . .

1785-1841, 19-20.
Tinker, C. B., Arnold's 'Dover Beach 1 ,

347.

T. L. S., leading articles, Hooke, Theo-
dore, and his Diary, 279; Pastoral
Plays, 201 ; Quatercentenary of the
Coverdale Bible, 167-8; Sir W.
Ralegh's Prose, 246; The Tudor
Character, 170, 246; John Fisher
and Thomas More, 166.
Toynbee, Paget, and Whibley, Leo-
nard, The Correspondence of Thomas
Gray, ed. by, 284-5.

378

INDEX

Train, Lilla, Chaucer's *Ladyes Foure

and Twenty* y 114.
Tramer, Inna, Studien zu den An-

fangen tier puritanischen Emblem-

literatur in England, 242.
Traver, Hope, Beowulf 648-9, 80.
Treneer, Anne, Charles M* Doughty;

a Study of his Prose and Verse,

-.

Trnka, B., Phonological Analysis of

Present-Day Standard English, 33-4.
Trabetzkoy, N., Anleitung zu phono-

logischen Beschreibungen, 36.
Trusler, Margaret, Some Textual Notes

based on ... the Towneley MS., 154.
Turnell, G. M., Dry den and the

Religious Elements in the Classical

Tradition, 271.
Tuve, Rosemond, Spenser and the

'Zodiake of Life\ 236-7.
Twaddell, W. P., On Defining the

Phoneme, 34r~5.

Vachek, Josef, Several thoughts on

several Statements of the Phoneme

theory, 35.
Vaganay, Hugues, L'CEuvre d'un

Mgue francais traduite par Josuah

Sylvester, 242.
Vandiver, Jr., E. P., Elizabethan

Dramatic Parasite, 202.
Veen, H. R. S. van der, Jewish Char-

acters in 18th-Gentury English Fiction

and Drama, 307-8.
Villard, Leonie, Les 'Juvenilia' de

Jane Austen, 347.
Vinaver, Eugene, Malory^s Morte

Darthur in the Light of a Recent

Discovery, 143-4.

Vincent, H. P., A Pope Problem, 316.
Visiak, E. H., see under Skeat, W.,

253.
Visser, G. J., La$amon: An Attempt at

Vindication, 145.
Volbeda, B., The 'Definite Forms',

61-2.
Vulliamy, C. E., Aspasia: The Life

and Letters of Mary Oranville, Mrs.

Delany (1700-1788), ed. by, 292.

Wager, Willis J. } The So-called Pro-

logue to the Kts* Tale, 106.
Wagner, Bernard M., New Songs of

the Reign of H. VIII, 169; New
. Poems by Sir M. Dyer, 170-1; A

Middle-ton Forgery, 218.
Walcutt, Charles Child, The Pronoun

of Address in * Troilus and Criseyde ',

99.
Waldock, A. J., Some Recent Develop-

ments in English Literature: Lectures

on J. Joyce, E. Sitwell, and T+ S*
Eliot, 341-2 ; on Ulysses, 342.

Wales, Julia Grace, Elaboration of
Setting in 'Othello' . . ., 191.

Walker, E. B., Letters . . . to Mrs.
Gaskdl . , . in the possession of the
John Rylands Library, ed. by, 330.-

Wallenberg, J. K., The Place-names
of Kent, 58.

Wallerstein, Ruth C., The Develop-
ment of the Rhetoric and Metre of the
Heroic Couplet, 257-8; Richard
Crashaw: . . . Style and Poetic
Development, 258.

Walley, Harold H., Shakespeare's
Portrayal of ShylocJc, 184^-5.

Warburg Institute, Kultunvissen-
schaftliche Bibliographie zum Nach-
leben der Antike, ed. for, 11-12.

Ward, C. E., on Tyrannic Love, or the
Royal Martyr, 270.

Wardale, E. E., Chapters on OE.
Literature, 66-8.

Warne, F. J., Prester John in Cole-
ridge's 'Kubla Khan\ 347.

Warren, Austin, Carmen Deo Nostro,
259 ; on Richard Crashaw's ordina-
tion, 259.

Wasilefsky, A. M., John Donne the
Rhetor, 263.

Wassenburg, Rudolf, Tolstois Angriff
auf Shakespeare: Bin Beitrag zur
Charakterisierung ostlichen und west-
lichen Schopfertums, 197.

Watkins- Jones, A., Bishop Percy,
Thomas Warton, aq,d Chatterton's
Rowley Poems, 315.

Watson, George, The Designation of
an Atmospheric Phenomenon, 48.

Watts, H. H. 9 Lyttorfs Theories of
Prose Fiction, 347.

Waugb, Evelyn, Edmund Campion,
232-3.

Weatherly, Edward H., A Note on
Chaucer's Pardoner's Prologue, 113-
14.

Webster, C. M., The Satiric Back-
ground of the attack on the Puritans
in Swift's 'A Tale of a Tub\ 280,
315-16.

Weekleyj Ernest, Something about
Words, 46-7 ; Etymology of * Codlin 9 ,
47-8.

Weigelin, E,, Hamlets Verschickung
nach England, 190.

Weiss, B., A Letter-Preface of John
Free to John Tiptoft, Earl of Wor-
cester, 161.

Weitzmann, F. T., Notes on the Eliza-
bethan l EUgie\ 231.

Wells, H. G., Utopia . . ., by Sir T.

INDEX

379

More and . . . into English by Ralph
Robinson, introduction by, 165.

Wells, J. E., Sixth Supplement to a
Manual of the Writings in ME.,
1050-1400, 121.

Wells, W. S., The Famous Victories of
H. V, 224.

Welsford, Enid, The Fool, 16-17.

Wershofen, Christian, James Harring-
ton und sein Wunschbild vom germa-
nischen Staate, 263.

West, Michael, The New Method
English Dictionary, 41.

Whibley, Leonard, see under Toyn-
bee, Paget, 284.

White, H. 0., Plagiarism and Imita-
tion during the English Benaissance
. . ., 228-30.

Whitehall, Harold, Some ISth-Century
Spellings from the Nottingham
Records, 15; on Basic, 47; The
Background of the verb Bask, 49-50 ;
Scaitcliffe, a Place-name Derivation,
56.

Whitford, Harold C., A New Docu-
ment concerning Robert Chaucer,
116.

Whiting, B. J., Proverbs in the 'Ancren
Riwle' and the 'Recluse', 148-9.

Whiting, C. E., on Bede's life and
works, 71.

Whiting, G. W., Milton's Reply to
Lord Digby, 253; Milton and that
'learned English Writer", 253-4,
Milton and the 'Postscript', 254;
The Source of EiJconoklastes: A
Resurvey, 254.

Whiting, Mary B., Sir Thomas More,
165.

Whitney, Lois, Primitivism and the
Idea of Progress in English Popular
Literature of the 18th Century, 314.

Wiehe, Heinrich, Piers Plowman
und die sozialen Fragen seiner Zeit,
131.

Wild, Friedrich, Zum Problem des
Barocks in der englischen Dichtung,
249.

Wilkinson, C. H., A Note on Thomas
May, 262; Lord Rochester, 273.

Willard, R., Two Apocrypha in OE.
Homilies, 77-8.

Williams, Charles, Rochester, 272-3 ;

and Cecil, Lord David, Selin-

court, E. de, and TiUyard, E. M. W.,
The New Book of English Verse, ed.
by, 26.

Williams, F. B., Ingram Frizer, 207-
8; The Massacre of Money (1602),
241; Leicester's Ghost, 241-2; The
Haven of Hope, 243.

Williams, Harold, Jonathan Swift and
the Four Last Years of the Queen,
351-2; A Swift Epitaph, 316; The
Drapier's Letters, 316.

Williams, Marjorie, William Shen-
stone . . ., 297-8.

Williams, Rowan, see under Pellizzi,

a, 17.

Williamson, George, HaJcewill and the
Arthurian Legend, 141-2; Muta-
bility, Decay, and mh-Century
Melancholy, 249 ; Of Milton and the
Mortalist Heresy, 254-5.

Wilson, J. D., on the 'complete 1
Hamlet, 186; What Happens in
1 Hamlet 9 , 188-9; Too too sullied
Flesh, 190.

Wilson, R. M., The Provenance of the
Lambeth Homilies with a New
Collation,U$-5Q; & l andae*in ME.,
150.

Wine, Celesta, Nathaniel Wood's Con-
flict of Conscience, 173-4.

Withington, R., Water fastand, 154;
The Castle of Perseverance, 1. 695,
155; The Continuity of Dramatic
Development, 181.

Wohlers, Heinz, Der personliche
Gehalt in den Shalcespeare-Noten
Samuel Johnsons, 197-8.

Wolff, Max I,, Shakespeare und sein
Publikum, 181.

Woodbridge, J. E., Locke's Essay,
280.

Woodhouse, A. S. P., Puritanism and
Liberty, 248; Milton, Puritanism
and Liberty, 248.

Wordsworth, William, his decline,
321-2; Letters to Dorothy, 322-
3.

Worrall, Walter, Titus Andronicus,
'that painted hobby', 192.

Wright, Elizabeth M., Sir Gawain and
the Green Knight, 142.

Wright, Herbert G., An Early Allu-
sion to Chaucer, 117; Greene's
'EidstallMan', 208-9; Was George
Herbert the Author of 'Jacula
Prudentium*?, 258.

Wright, Louis B., Middle-Class Cul-
ture in Elizabethan England, 226.

Wroot, H. E., Sources of Charlotte
Bronte's Novels, Persons and Places,
328.

Wurtsbaugh, Jewel, Thomas Edwards
and the Editorship of the 'Faerie
Queene', 235-6; Digby's Criticism
of Spenser, 237.

Wyld, H. C., The Significance of *n
and -en in Milton's Spelling, 53,
256.

380

INDEX

Yearsley, M., The Diary of the Visits
of John Yeoman to London in the
Years 1774 and 1777, ed. by, 292.

Young, G. M., on 'Too too sullied
Flesh\ 190.

Young, Karl, A Note on Chaucer's
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Zaehrisson, R. E., Uncompounded
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Zanco, Atirelio, see under Kccoli, B.,
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PBINTED IK GKRE^T BBTrArN" AT THE TJNIVEBSITY PBESS, OXFOBD
BY JOHN JOHNSON, PBINTEB TO THE tTNIVEBSITY

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